ÿWPC,“ xÙÐk¹gV—mff3Œ‘c¢—ÑmX„k$›þ LÉ_Sì^›ê·BGªMâø}Cí„ r€*¢ ©>Ó‹A {'_Q’Í“ZÕ²þàÁ@¬¸7?¿¢qۉÐ$Î] Ež:ض$q]2iˆ!“ÂÖ^ ]÷i1…ZäU½Ê£ŽO·9ÎR©.ÌYu=×ËK–ýÜNwåÐzêM‘‡½ÌÁK®Ì¬Ä^šÁ´_͇A$Yñ˜§‡‘áË_ßO¶cƒâú¼”`ªÝB•7ãµ¥¿êDÖaŸá×Ú¦+HËpcø RÃÌÓµ{kÊo`ÉCô «ˆX™.jTèzÅ(š‡D#?¢¶/ð“fs-ï#“pVF¥iå‚DÀќƔý X#Â"æqv¿3ˆæö*òåê9™…‡Îwàý¦õóõ ~<׿kG‚vLùü?XwÄÔW=»¾FÅ%š×^¤2¨ÐLªØ­¼½—"ßËœQrr W+»œVÓè›ç‹Q霋i/*¬ži ¢FkÜT'­U£d#!x`™ %ù 0(ÿ ^ 'w@34s‡– m˜‚¯N1Y3UBŒU>Î 0µ  0DÁ UB>¥Rã±5UNæM4H8Á€ bA%EI%fK% 01M%N~%b€%aˆ% œ% 0=²%ï% 0È) 0>Î) 0Ê * 0´Ö* 0´Š+ 0a>, 0´Ÿ, 0´S- 09. 0Ü@. 02/ 0üN/ 0:J0 0…„0 0_ 1 0 h1 0kr2 0ÇÝ3 B*¤5 D3Î5 C6 D+6 0ÇF6 0ç 8 06ô8 0*9 0:2: 0hl: 0FÔ:U6;U>P;U*Ž;2¸;9ê=@#AcCMzFM~F C‚FÚœFU>vN¿´NŒsPçÿTU>æV $W• ÄX±Ybr g g¡|m|m rrr)vU>›}`Ù} B9ƒHVƒU>ž…øÜ…ÀÔ‡U>”ŠZÒŠ˜HP LaserJet 4,ü,,,,,ü0 VÝ ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àA€third€way€in€which€the€personal€medical€leave€provisionÐ ° Ðmight€possibly€be€justified€as€responding€to€a€threat€ofÏunconstitutional€gender€discrimination€is€that€it€serves€toÏeliminate€the€risk€of€discriminatory€treatment€of€men€in€leaveÏpolicies.€€While€the€legislative€record€suggests€that€men€may€haveÏbeen€treated€in€a€discriminatory€fashion€with€respect€to€parentalÏleave,€òòseeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€S.€Rep.€No.€103„3,€at€14„15€(discussing€studiesÐ ` ° Ðby€the€Bureau€of€Labor€Statistics€highlighting€the€discrepancyÏbetween€the€availability€of€maternity€and€paternity€leave),€andÏperhaps€leave€to€care€for€family€members,€there€is€no€suggestionÏthat€men€were€disadvantaged€in€personal€medical€leave€policies,Ïnor,€in€particular,€is€there€any€reason€to€think€from€theÏlegislative€record€that€states€as€employers€disadvantaged€men€inÏoffering€medical€leave€in€a€way€that€could€be€consideredÏdiscriminatory.€€Indeed,€men€are€protected€from€inequitable€leaveÏpolicies€offered€by€either€private€or€public€employers€in€any€caseÏby€Title€VII's€prohibition€of€discrimination€in€employment€on€theÏbasis€of€sex.‹($¡¡É+Æ €3e3e‚3eƒ3e„3e…3e†3e‡3ˆ3ï‰3€y‡˜*Æ.wpdÑ3|x‰3/ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ  LAROMcAuliffeGagnonintervenorLivernoisKimel OÝ ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àÔ‡XžÙ‹‹‹ÔWe€pause€to€reject€an€argument€made€by€the€State.€€TheÐ ° ÐState€suggests€that€only€intentional€acts€of€discrimination€mayÏever€be€reached€by€a€federal€statute€under€the€enforcement€clause.€ÏWe€do€not€read€the€Eleventh€Amendment€jurisprudence€that€way,€andÏthe€argument€contravenes€the€rule€that€Congress€is€free€underÏSection€5€to€act€prophylactically€as€well€as€remedially.€€òòE.g.óó,Ð ˜è ÐòòÔ#†‹žÙ‹‹XžÙæ#ÔÔ_ÔKimelÔ_Ôóó,€528€U.S.€at€81Ô‡XžÙ‹‹‹žÙÔ.Ô#†‹žÙ‹‹XžÙ #Ô<þ6X9`(*Courier 12pt10cpi<èÀ( 9Z+&Courier Regular(e(2Ö $¤¤Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€þ‘ЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó –Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àÔ‡X^½‹‹‹ÔThat€risk€would€seem€to€be€greatest,€at€least€in€theory,Ð ° Ðamong€employers€who€had€escaped€the€PDA's€leave€requirementsÏ(because€they€offered€no€leave€to€anyone)€but€who€were€now€caughtÏby€the€FMLA's€requirement€giving€pregnancy€leave.€€But€as€we€notedÏbefore,€there€is€no€evidence€in€the€legislative€record€that€theÏstates€present€a€"gap"€problem.Ô#†‹^½‹‹X^½æ#Ô<èÀ( 9Z+&Courier Regular HÝ ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Ó€I€acknowledge€that€Congress's€adoption€of€the€personalÐ ° Ðmedical€leave€provision€also€reflected€concerns€for€economicÏdislocation€and€Ô_ÔdiscriminationÔ_Ô€related€to€medical€conditions.€Ð @ € ÐThose€additional€concerns€do€not€detract€from€the€significance€ofÏCongress's€concern€for€gender€discrimination. §Ý ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` à29€U.S.C.€ðð€2612(a)(1),€titled€"Entitlement€to€leave,"Ð ° Ðprovides:Ìà0  àà ` àSubject€to€[29€U.S.C.€ðð€2613],€an€eligible€employee€shallÏbe€entitled€to€a€total€of€12€workweeks€of€leave€during€any€12„¼month€period€for€one€or€more€of€the€following:Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà ` à(A)€Because€of€the€birth€of€a€son€or€daughter€of€theÏemployee€and€in€order€to€care€for€such€son€or€daughter.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà ` à(B)€Because€of€the€placement€of€a€son€or€daughter€withÏthe€employee€for€adoption€or€foster€care.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà ` à(C)€In€order€to€care€for€the€spouse,€or€a€son,€daughter,Ïor€parent,€of€the€employee,€if€such€spouse,€son,€daughter,€orÏparent€has€a€serious€health€condition.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà ` à(D)€Because€of€a€serious€health€condition€that€makes€theÏemployee€unable€to€perform€the€functions€of€the€position€ofÏsuch€employee.vÖr Z‹6Times New Roman Regular >Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àThe€Supreme€Court€had€earlier€held€that€cost„justifiedÐ ° Ðdiscrimination€on€the€basis€of€pregnancy€was€not€unconstitutionalÏgender€discrimination€under€the€Fourteenth€Amendment.€€òòÔ‡X^½‹‹‹ÔSeeóó€òòGeduldigóóÐ @ Ðv.€òòAielloóó,€417€U.S.€484€(1974)Ô#†‹^½‹‹X^½­#Ô. ·Ý ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÔ€LXžÙ‹‹‹ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Ó€€It€is€plain€that,€under€òòGarrettóó,€there€is€no€congruenceÐ ° Ðbetween€the€personal€medical€leave€provision€and€congressionalÏauthority€to€abrogate€Eleventh€Amendment€immunity€in€addressingÏdisability€discrimination€under€Section€5.€€òòGarrettóó€held€that€theÐ X Ðneeded€congruence€in€order€to€subject€the€state€to€a€privateÏdamages€action€for€disability€discrimination€was€lacking€in€theÏAmericans€with€Disabilities€Act.€€òòSeeóó€òòÔ_ÔGarrettÔ_Ôóó,€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121Ð ` ° ÐS.€Ct.€at€966„67.€€If€a€direct€connection€to€disabilityÏdiscrimination€was€insufficient€in€òòGarrettóó,€then€the€indirectÐ ð @ Ðconnection€in€the€FMLA€between€disability€discrimination€andÏinability€to€work€due€to€serious€health€problems€is€surelyÏinsufficient€to€establish€congruence,€at€least€on€the€currentÏlegislative€record.€€The€United€States€concedes€this€point€in€itsÏbrief.€- ù-øÀ0ÿÿ.Normal- ù-TABLE Aÿÿ8163-133<ÿÿ:Definition T Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€þ‘ЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€þ‘‹Ð‹dЋd=Ó€The€article€also€cites€poll€figures€that€show€employersÐ ° Ðadmitting€a€tendency€not€to€hire€young€women€in€the€face€of€leaveÏlegislation.€€òòId.óó€at€2196€n.169€(citing€139€Cong.€Rec.€H368€(dailyÐ @ Ðed.€Feb.€3,€1993)€(statement€of€Rep.€Dreier)€and€137€Cong.€Rec.ÏH9748€(daily€ed.€Nov.€13,€1991)€(statement€of€Rep.€DeLay)).€€WhileÏthis€data€was€used€to€counter€arguments€in€favor€of€the€FMLA,€it€isÏnot€logically€consistent€to€conclude€that€leveling€leave€policiesÏacross€genders€would€make€the€circumstance€of€women€more€grave.<GDÿÿ:Definition LÓ , ÓÓ;1ܰÜ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#;ÓÓ  ÓÓ8.°°` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#8Ó8ÿÿ6Definitionòòóó('zÿÿ&H1ò òÔ  ÔÔ‡°°°Ôó óÔ  ÔÔ‡XXXÔ(oÿÿ&H2ò òÔ‡„„„Ôó óÔ‡XXXÔ(oÿÿ&H3ò òÔ‡¼¼¼Ôó óÔ‡XXXÔ(ÿÿ&H4ò òÔ‡XXXÔó óÔ‡XXXÔ(oÿÿ&H5ò òÔ‡ôôôÔó óÔ‡XXXÔ(oÿÿ&H6ò òÔ‡Ôó óÔ‡XXXÔ2ÿÿ0Addressòòóó8SPÿÿ6BlockquoteÓ , ÓÓ , ÓÓ;1ܰÜ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#;ÓÓ  ÓÓ  ÓÓ8.°°` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#8Ó,ÿÿ*CITEòòóó,dlÿÿ*CODEÔ‡ôôôÔÔK‡A<þ6X9`(Courier NewKÔÔ‡XXXÔÔS‡Bô\  `&Times New RomanSÔ4ÿÿ2Emphasisòòóó6&)ÿÿ4HyperlinkÔ  ÔÔ  ÔòòÔ ÿ ÔóóÔ  ÔÔ  ÔÔ  Ô<ÿÿ:FollowedHypeòòÔ €€ ÔóóÔ  Ô4goÿÿ2Keyboardò 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@  ÐThose€additional€concerns€do€not€detract€from€the€significance€ofÏCongress's€concern€for€gender€discrimination. /Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àÔ‡X^½‹‹‹ÔWe€pause€to€reject€an€argument€made€by€the€State.€€TheÐ ° ÐState€suggests€that€only€intentional€acts€of€discrimination€mayÏever€be€reached€by€a€federal€statute€under€the€enforcement€clause.€ÏWe€do€not€read€the€Eleventh€Amendment€jurisprudence€that€way,€andÏthe€argument€contravenes€the€rule€that€Congress€is€free€underÏSection€5€to€act€prophylactically€as€well€as€remedially.€€òòE.g.óó,Ð ˜è ÐòòÔ#†‹^½‹‹X^½æ#ÔKimelóó,€528€U.S.€at€81Ô‡X^½‹‹‹^½Ô.Ô#†‹^½‹‹X^½ì#Ô 6Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` à€€We€express€no€opinion€on€the€states'€immunity€from€aÐ ° Ðprivate€cause€of€action€under€the€other€provisions€of€the€Ô_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô.€€WeÏalso€note€that€the€applicability€of€the€personal€medical€leaveÏprovision€to€private€parties€as€a€valid€exercise€of€Congress'sÏArticle€I€powers€is€not€in€question. Ý ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Ó€The€article€also€cites€poll€figures€that€show€employersÐ ° Ðadmitting€a€tendency€not€to€hire€young€women€in€the€face€of€leaveÏlegislation.€€òòId.óó€at€2196€n.169€(citing€139€Cong.€Rec.€H368€(dailyÐ @ Ðed.€Feb.€3,€1993)€(statement€of€Rep.€Dreier)€and€137€Cong.€Rec.ÏH9748€(daily€ed.€Nov.€13,€1991)€(statement€of€Rep.€DeLay)).€€WhileÏthis€data€was€used€to€counter€arguments€in€favor€of€the€FMLA,€it€isÏnot€logically€consistent€to€conclude€that€leveling€leave€policiesÏacross€genders€would€make€the€circumstance€of€women€more€grave. ÿÿÿd ÐÝ ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àThere€are€variations€on€the€argument€that€neutral€leaveÐ ° Ðprovisions€run€the€risk€of€creating€incentives€to€discriminate.€ÏOne€variant€(though€not€raised€directly€by€Laro€or€the€UnitedÏStates)€distinguishes€between€concern€for€women€as€potential€takersÏof€pregnancy€leave€and€concern€for€women€as€likely€takers€of€leaveÏfor€family€caretaking.€€The€contention€begins€with€a€fear€thatÏemployers€will€be€less€likely€to€hire€or€promote€women€because€theyÏbelieve€that€women€will€be€more€likely€than€men€to€take€advantageÏof€the€family€leave€provisions€in€29€U.S.C.€ðð€2612(a)(1)(B)€andÏ(C).€€The€fact€that€both€men€and€women€are€entitled€to€familyÏleave,€thus€achieving€desired€neutrality,€only€solves€part€of€theÏproblem,€the€argument€goes.€€Either€because€of€stereotypes€orÏbecause€women€actually€take€leave€for€family€caretaking€more€often,Ïthe€claim€is,€these€provisions€of€the€FMLA€(by€increasing€theÏprojected€costs€of€women€employees)€create€new€incentives€not€toÏhire€or€promote€women.€€Those€incentives€are€powerful€enough,€theÏargument€proceeds,€to€override€the€incentives€not€to€discriminateÏprovided€by€Title€VII€and€the€PDA.€€In€consequence,€according€toÏthis€theory,€the€number€of€men€taking€leave€must€be€increasedÏthrough€the€creation€of€the€personal€medical€leave€provision€inÏsubsection€(D).€€This€undercuts€any€presumption€that€women€will€beÏmore€likely€to€take€leave€than€men.Ìà  àThis€theory€as€to€the€effects€of€the€new€family€leaveÏprovisions€on€the€future€behavior€of€employers€does€not€appear€toÏbe€what€concerned€Congress€in€enacting€the€personal€medical€leaveÏprovision,€however.€€Certainly€Congress€never€made€any€findings€toÏthis€effect€with€regard€to€states€as€employers.€€Without€more,€thisÏtheory€does€not€suffice.<èÀ( 9Z+&Courier Regular µÝ ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àIn€the€FMLA€legislative€history,€Congress€discussed€theÐ ° Ðgap€left€by€the€PDA€with€respect€to€employers€who€denied€benefitsÏto€all€workers.€€òòSeeóó€H.R.€Rep.€No.€103„8(II),€at€11€(1993). ‚Ý ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àÔ‡PXžÙ‹‹‹ÔThe€Supreme€Court€did€consider€a€gender„basedÐ ° Ðjustification€for€legislation€under€Section€5€in€òòUnited€Statesóó€v.Ð xÈ ÐòòMorrisonóó,€òòsupraóó,€assessing€the€private€suit€provisions€of€theÐ @ ÐViolence€Against€Women€Act.€€In€that€case€the€Court€concluded€thatÏthe€provisions€of€Ô_ÔVAWAÔ_Ô€at€issue€went€beyond€Congress's€Section€5Ïpowers€on€the€ground€that€the€provisions€did€not€act€to€preventÏunconstitutional€state€action,€instead€targeting€private€behavior.Ô#†P‹žÙ‹‹XžÙå#ԀР` ° Ð529€U.S.€at€626.€€Since€the€Court€found€that€Ô_ÔVAWAÔ_Ô€did€not€targetÐ ( x € Ðstate€action,€it€did€not€address€the€Eleventh€Amendment€analysisÏpursued€in€òòÔ_ÔKimelÔ_Ôóó€and€òòÔ_ÔGarrettÔ_Ôóó. ÝÝ ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àStates€may€also€waive€this€immunity€by€consenting€toÐ ° Ðsuit,€but€nÔ‡X^½‹‹‹Ôo€one€argues€here€that€New€Hampshire€consented€to€suitÐ xÈ Ðor€waived€its€immunity.Ô#†‹^½‹‹X^½9#Ô<èÀ( 9Z+&Courier Regular –Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àSection€5€provides€in€full:€€"The€Congress€shall€haveÐ ° Ðpower€to€enforce,€by€appropriate€legislation,€the€provisions€ofÏthis€article."€€U.S.€Const.€amend.€XIV. ‹ Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àIn€deciding€whether€legislation€is€congruent€to€aÐ ° Ðconstitutional€violationòòóó,€the€Court€has€typically€looked€to€theÐ xÈ Ðlegislative€record€to€determine€if€Congress€has€identified€aÏhistory€and€pattern€of€unconstitutional€state€action,€òòseeóó€òòGarrettóó,Ð X Ð531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121€S.€Ct.€at€964„67;€òòKimelóó,€528€U.S.€at€90„91;Ð Ð  ÐòòFlorida€Prepaid€Educ.€Expense€Bd.óó€v.€òòCollege€Savings€Bankóó,€527€U.S.Ð ˜è Ð627,€640€(1999),€although€it€has€suggested€that€such€an€inquiry€mayÏnot€be€required€where€the€constitutional€wrong€is€otherwiseÏevident,€òòcf.óó€òòFlorida€Prepaidóó,€527€U.S.€at€646€("Though€lack€ofÐ ð @ Ðsupport€in€the€legislative€record€is€not€determinative,€identifyingÏthe€targeted€constitutional€wrong€or€evil€is€still€a€critical€partÏof€our€ðð€5€calculus.")€(citations€omitted);€òòaccordóó€òòCity€of€Boerneóó,Ð H ˜  Ð521€U.S.€at€530„31;€òòsee€alsoóó€òòKimelóó,€528€U.S.€at€91.€€Because€we€doÐ `  Ðnot€consider€subsection€(D),€the€FMLA€provision€at€issue€here,€toÏbe€a€matter€where€the€targeted€constitutional€wrong€is€self„¼evident,€we€also€look€to€the€legislative€record.€€Given€thisÏresult,€we€need€not€reach€the€question€of€whether,€as€some€of€theÏlanguage€in€òòGarrettóó€suggests,€the€Court€now€considers€suchÐ øH  Ðlegislative€history€to€be€more€generally€required€than€òòKimelóó€andÐ À ÐòòCity€of€Boerneóó€suggest.€€òòSeeóó€òòGarrettóó,€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121€S.€Ct.Ð ˆØ Ðat€967„68€("[I]n€order€to€authorize€private€individuals€to€recoverÏmoney€damages€against€the€States,€there€must€be€a€pattern€ofÏdiscrimination€by€the€States€which€violates€the€FourteenthÏAmendment,€and€the€remedy€imposed€by€Congress€must€be€congruent€andÏproportional€to€the€targeted€violation.");€òòid.óó€at€969€(Kennedy,€J.,Ð pÀ Ðconcurring)€("The€predicate€for€money€damages€against€anÏunconsenting€State€in€suits€brought€by€private€persons€must€be€aÏfederal€statute€enacted€upon€the€documentation€of€patterns€ofÏconstitutional€violations€committed€by€the€State€in€its€officialÏcapacity."). §Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` à29€U.S.C.€ðð€2612(a)(1),€titled€"Entitlement€to€leave,"Ð ° Ðprovides:Ìà0  àà ` àSubject€to€[29€U.S.C.€ðð€2613],€an€eligible€employee€shallÏbe€entitled€to€a€total€of€12€workweeks€of€leave€during€any€12„¼month€period€for€one€or€more€of€the€following:Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà ` à(A)€Because€of€the€birth€of€a€son€or€daughter€of€theÏemployee€and€in€order€to€care€for€such€son€or€daughter.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà ` à(B)€Because€of€the€placement€of€a€son€or€daughter€withÏthe€employee€for€adoption€or€foster€care.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà ` à(C)€In€order€to€care€for€the€spouse,€or€a€son,€daughter,Ïor€parent,€of€the€employee,€if€such€spouse,€son,€daughter,€orÏparent€has€a€serious€health€condition.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà ` à(D)€Because€of€a€serious€health€condition€that€makes€theÏemployee€unable€to€perform€the€functions€of€the€position€ofÏsuch€employee. hÝ ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àÔ‡X^½‹‹‹ÔThe€State,€Laro,€and€the€intervenor€United€States€allÐ ° Ðargue€that€the€entire€FMLA€is€at€issue.€€We€disagree.€€TheÏconstitutional€arguments€in€support€of€the€remaining€provisionsÏhave€greater€strength€and€raise€issues€(for€instance,€theirÏimplications€for€family€roles)Ô#†‹^½‹‹X^½å#ÔÔ‡X^½‹‹‹^½Ô€not€at€stake€here.€€Those€otherÐ Ð  Ðprovisions€are€not€tested€by€this€case.Ô#†‹^½‹‹X^½F#Ô€€Assessing€the€provisionsÐ ˜è Ðseparately€is€not€unprecedented,€òòseeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòÔ‡X^½‹‹‹^½ÔKazmieróó€v.€òòWidmannóó,€225Ð ` ° ÐF.3d€519,€525€(5th€Cir.€2000)€("[W]e€discern€no€reason€why€theÏprovisions€of€one€of€the€FMLA's€subsections€could€not€validlyÏabrogate€the€States'€Eleventh€Amendment€immunity€even€if€theÏprovisions€of€some€or€all€of€the€remaining€subsections€fail€to€doÏso.")Ô#†‹^½‹‹X^½N#Ô,€and€may€be€important€where,€as€here,€separate€provisions€ofÐ H ˜  Ðthe€same€act€embody€differing€remedial€purposes.€€Moreover,€theÏSupreme€Court€has€suggested€that€different€provisions€of€the€sameÏact€might€fare€differently€under€this€Eleventh€Amendment€analysis,Ïin€that€it€declined€to€address€claims€arising€under€Title€II€of€theÏADA€in€òòGarrettóó.€òòSeeóó€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121€S.€Ct.€at€960€n.1. —Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÔ€X^½‹‹‹ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Ó€€It€is€plain€that,€under€òòGarrettóó,€there€is€no€congruenceÐ ° Ðbetween€the€personal€medical€leave€provision€and€congressionalÏauthority€to€abrogate€Eleventh€Amendment€immunity€in€addressingÏdisability€discrimination€under€Section€5.€€òòGarrettóó€held€that€theÐ X Ðneeded€congruence€in€order€to€subject€the€state€to€a€privateÏdamages€action€for€disability€discrimination€was€lacking€in€theÏAmericans€with€Disabilities€Act.€€òòSeeóó€òòGarrettóó,€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121Ð ` ° ÐS.€Ct.€at€966„67.€€If€a€direct€connection€to€disabilityÏdiscrimination€was€insufficient€in€òòGarrettóó,€then€the€indirectÐ ð @ Ðconnection€in€the€FMLA€between€disability€discrimination€andÏinability€to€work€due€to€serious€health€problems€is€surelyÏinsufficient€to€establish€congruence,€at€least€on€the€currentÏlegislative€record.€€The€United€States€concedes€this€point€in€itsÏbrief.€ Ý ƒÖ $ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€^½Ð‹dÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^½‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àÔ‡X^½‹‹‹ÔThe€Supreme€Court€did€consider€a€gender„basedÐ ° Ðjustification€for€legislation€under€Section€5€in€òòUnited€Statesóó€v.Ð xÈ ÐòòMorrisonóó,€òòsupraóó,€assessing€the€private€suit€provisions€of€theÐ @ ÐViolence€Against€Women€Act.€€In€that€case€the€Court€concluded€thatÏthe€provisions€of€VAWA€at€issue€went€beyond€Congress's€Section€5Ïpowers€on€the€ground€that€the€provisions€did€not€act€to€preventÏunconstitutional€state€action,€instead€targeting€private€behavior.Ô#†‹^½‹‹X^½å#ԀР` ° Ð529€U.S.€at€626.€€Since€the€Court€found€that€VAWA€did€not€targetÐ ( x ¤ Ðstate€action,€it€did€not€address€the€Eleventh€Amendment€analysisÏpursued€in€òòKimelóó€and€òòGarrettóó. hÝ ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àÔ‡[XžÙ‹‹‹ÔThe€State,€Ô_ÔLaroÔ_Ô,€and€the€Ô_ÔintervenorÔ_Ô€United€States€allÐ ° Ðargue€that€the€entire€Ô_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô€is€at€issue.€€We€disagree.€€TheÏconstitutional€arguments€in€support€of€the€remaining€provisionsÏhave€greater€strength€and€raise€issues€(for€instance,€theirÏimplications€for€family€roles)Ô#†[‹žÙ‹‹XžÙå#ÔÔ‡[XžÙ‹‹‹žÙÔ€not€at€stake€here.€€Those€otherÐ Ð  Ðprovisions€are€not€tested€by€this€case.Ô#†[‹žÙ‹‹XžÙ¦#Ô€€Assessing€the€provisionsÐ ˜è Ðseparately€is€not€unprecedented,€òòseeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòÔ‡[XžÙ‹‹‹žÙÔÔ_ÔKazmierÔ_Ôóó€v.€òòÔ_ÔWidmannÔ_Ôóó,€225Ð ` ° ÐF.3d€519,€525€(5th€Cir.€2000)€("[Ô_ÔW]eÔ_Ô€discern€no€reason€why€theÏprovisions€of€one€of€the€Ô_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô's€subsections€could€not€validlyÏabrogate€the€States'€Eleventh€Amendment€immunity€even€if€theÏprovisions€of€some€or€all€of€the€remaining€subsections€fail€to€doÏso.")Ô#†[‹žÙ‹‹XžÙ®#Ô,€and€may€be€important€where,€as€here,€separate€provisions€ofÐ H ˜  Ðthe€same€act€embody€differing€remedial€purposes.€€Moreover,€theÏSupreme€Court€has€suggested€that€different€provisions€of€the€sameÏact€might€fare€differently€under€this€Eleventh€Amendment€analysis,Ïin€that€it€declined€to€address€claims€arising€under€Title€II€of€theÏADA€in€òòÔ_ÔGarrettÔ_Ôóó.€òòSeeóó€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121€S.€Ct.€at€960€n.1.<èÀ( 9Z+&Courier Regular VÝ ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àA€third€way€in€which€the€personal€medical€leave€provisionÐ ° Ðmight€possibly€be€justified€as€responding€to€a€threat€ofÏunconstitutional€gender€discrimination€is€that€it€serves€toÏeliminate€the€risk€of€discriminatory€treatment€of€men€in€leaveÏpolicies.€€While€the€legislative€record€suggests€that€men€may€haveÏbeen€treated€in€a€discriminatory€fashion€with€respect€to€parentalÏleave,€òòseeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€S.€Rep.€No.€103„3,€at€14„15€(discussing€studiesÐ ` ° Ðby€the€Bureau€of€Labor€Statistics€highlighting€the€discrepancyÏbetween€the€availability€of€maternity€and€paternity€leave),€andÏperhaps€leave€to€care€for€family€members,€there€is€no€suggestionÏthat€men€were€disadvantaged€in€personal€medical€leave€policies,Ïnor,€in€particular,€is€there€any€reason€to€think€from€theÏlegislative€record€that€states€as€employers€disadvantaged€men€inÏoffering€medical€leave€in€a€way€that€could€be€consideredÏdiscriminatory.€€Indeed,€men€are€protected€from€inequitable€leaveÏpolicies€offered€by€either€private€or€public€employers€in€any€caseÏby€Title€VII's€prohibition€of€discrimination€in€employment€on€theÏbasis€of€sex. d >Ý ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àThe€Supreme€Court€had€earlier€held€that€cost„justifiedÐ ° Ðdiscrimination€on€the€basis€of€pregnancy€was€not€unconstitutionalÏgender€discrimination€under€the€Fourteenth€Amendment.€€òòÔ‡_XžÙ‹‹‹ÔSeeóó€òòGeduldigóóÐ @ Ðv.€òòAielloóó,€417€U.S.€484€(1974)Ô#†_‹žÙ‹‹XžÙ­#Ô.<èÀ( 9Z+&Courier Regular îÐ °  ÐÝ ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àIn€the€Ô_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô€legislative€history,€Congress€discussed€theÐ ° Ðgap€left€by€the€PDA€with€respect€to€employers€who€denied€benefitsÏto€all€workers.€€òòSeeóó€H.R.€Rep.€No.€103„8(II),€at€11€(1993). ¶Ý ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àÔ‡bXžÙ‹‹‹ÔThat€risk€would€seem€to€be€greatest,€at€least€in€theory,Ð ° Ðamong€employers€who€had€escaped€the€PDA's€leave€requirementsÏ(because€they€offered€no€leave€to€anyone)€but€who€were€now€caughtÏby€the€Ô_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô's€requirement€giving€pregnancy€leave.€€But€as€we€notedÏbefore,€there€is€no€evidence€in€the€legislative€record€that€theÏstates€present€a€"gap"€problem.Ô#†b‹žÙ‹‹XžÙæ#Ô<èÀ( 9Z+&Courier Regular PÝ ƒÂË$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€žÙЋdÐd=Óà  àòòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€žÙ‹Ð‹dЋd=Óà ` àThere€are€variations€on€the€argument€that€neutral€leaveÐ ° Ðprovisions€run€the€risk€of€creating€incentives€to€discriminate.€ÏOne€variant€(though€not€raised€directly€by€Ô_ÔLaroÔ_Ô€or€the€UnitedÏStates)€distinguishes€between€concern€for€women€as€potential€takersÏof€pregnancy€leave€and€concern€for€women€as€likely€takers€of€leaveÏfor€family€Ô_ÔcaretakingÔ_Ô.€€The€contention€begins€with€a€fear€thatÏemployers€will€be€less€likely€to€hire€or€promote€women€because€theyÏbelieve€that€women€will€be€more€likely€than€men€to€take€advantageÏof€the€family€leave€provisions€in€29€U.S.C.€ðð€2612(a)(1)(B)€andÏ(C).€€The€fact€that€both€men€and€women€are€entitled€to€familyÏleave,€thus€achieving€desired€neutrality,€only€solves€part€of€theÏproblem,€the€argument€goes.€€Either€because€of€stereotypes€orÏbecause€women€actually€take€leave€for€family€Ô_ÔcaretakingÔ_Ô€more€often,Ïthe€claim€is,€these€provisions€of€the€Ô_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô€(by€increasing€theÏprojected€costs€of€women€employees)€create€new€incentives€not€toÏhire€or€promote€women.€€Those€incentives€are€powerful€enough,€theÏargument€proceeds,€to€override€the€incentives€not€to€discriminateÏprovided€by€Title€VII€and€the€PDA.€€In€consequence,€according€toÏthis€theory,€the€number€of€men€taking€leave€must€be€increasedÏthrough€the€creation€of€the€personal€medical€leave€provision€inÏsubsection€(D).€€This€undercuts€any€presumption€that€women€will€beÏmore€likely€to€take€leave€than€men.Ìà  àThis€theory€as€to€the€effects€of€the€new€family€leaveÏprovisions€on€the€future€behavior€of€employers€does€not€appear€toÏbe€what€concerned€Congress€in€enacting€the€personal€medical€leaveÏprovision,€however.€€Certainly€Congress€never€made€any€findings€toÏthis€effect€with€regard€to€states€as€employers.€€Without€more,€thisÏtheory€does€not€suffice.Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ=€^ºÐ‹dÐd=ÓÑTRXà3Ø'Xà3Ø' Letter3Ø' Letterÿ3Ø'TÑÑ ? ÑÙ*ƒ !ÙÓ  ÓÓ  ÓÔ‡°IU°‹‹ÔÔ‡°ÄX°°°IUÔò ò€United€States€Court€of€AppealsÔ#†‹ÇŽ‹°°ÄXÿ#ÔÔ‡„>‘„‹‹ÇŽÔÐ ° ÐFor€the€First€Circuitó óÔ#†„äf„„„>‘#ÔÔ#†‹^º‹„„äf‚#ÔÔ‡X^º‹‹‹^ºÔÐ „Ô ÐÓóÓÌÌßA€]) °°` dE<s ` AßÐ t Ä ÐÌÌNo.€00„1581ÌÌà@$ìàSTEPHEN€LAROˆÌÌà@ ìàPlaintiff,€Appellant,ˆÌÔ_Ôñ‰3ñà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àñ‰3ñÔ_ÔÌà@tt)ìàv.ˆÌÌà@ÄÄìàSTATE€OF€NEW€HAMPSHIREˆÌÌà@<< ìàDefendant,€Appellee.ˆÌÌßA€]) °°` dE<r` AßÐ sà ÐÌà@¬¬ìàON€APPEAL€FROM€THE€UNITED€STATES€DISTRICT€COURT€ˆÌÓ  ÓFOR€THE€DISTRICT€OF€NEW€HAMPSHIREÌÓvÓÌà@èèìà[Hon.€Steven€J.€McAuliffe,€òòU.S.€District€Judgeóó]ˆÐ ¢ò ÐÌßA€]) °°` dE<1` AßÐ 2‚ ÐÌà@„„'ìàBeforeˆÌÌÓ  Óà@@((ìàLynch,€òòCircuit€Judgeóó,Ð ™é ÐÔ#†‹^º‹‹X^º#ÔÔ‡X^º‹‹‹^ºÔStahl,€Ô#†‹^º‹‹X^ºö#ÔÔ‡X^º‹‹‹^ºÔòòSenior€Circuit€Judgeóó,Ô#†‹^º‹‹X^º?#ÔÔ‡X^º‹‹‹^ºÔÐ a± Ðand€Lipez,€òòCircuit€Judgeóó.Ð )y  ÐÌÌßA€]) °°` dE<€` AßÐ Ñ# ÐÌÓ  ÓÓ  Óà  àòòPeter€J.€Smithóó,€Attorney,€Appellate€Staff,€Civil€Division,Ð X ¨% ÐU.S.€Department€of€Justice,€with€whom€òòDavid€W.€Ogdenóó,€ActingÐ  !p& ÐAssistant€Attorney€General,€òòPaul€M.€Gagnonóó,€U.S.€Attorney,€and€òòMarkÐ è!8' ÐB.€Sternóó,€Attorney,€Appellate€Staff,€Civil€Division,€U.S.Ð °"( ÐDepartment€of€JusticeÔ#†‹^º‹‹X^ºœ#ÔÔ‡X^º‹‹‹^ºÔ,€were€on€brief,€for€intervenor€United€StatesÐ x#È) Ðand€appellant.ÌÌà  àòòAndrew€B.€Livernoisóó,€Ô#†‹^º‹‹X^º #Ôwith€whom€òòPhilip€T.€McLaughlinóó,€NewÐ Ð% !, ÐHampshire€Attorney€General,€was€on€brief,€for€appellee.ÌÌÌÔ*‹ƒ] ddd Xdd Xdd X°(#°(#‹ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ+  ÔÐ  ð(@$0 ‹‹ÐÓiÓñˆ3ñÐ SIT)¤$1 €â@37108„„‰€â@‰‹‹SÐñˆ3ññˆ3ñÐ 0&T)¤$1 „„‹‹0Ðñˆ3ñÌñ‡3ñAugust€6,€2001ñ‡3ñÌÐ SIDä*4&4" €â@37108 €â@ ‹‹SÐÐ(T)¤$5  (ÐÙ* !ÙÐ  Ü+,'5? ÐÑ  ÑÓÓÑ8€^½X‹dÈ‹‹dÈ8ÑÑ€ÑÓ*°,X°` ¨ ƒX°œX*ÓÝ ƒÿÝÝ  Ýà ` àò òòòóóÔ€X^½‹‹‹^½ÔLYNCH,€òòCircuit€Judgeó óóó.€€This€case€requires€us€to€address€Ð ° Ðthe€scope€of€congressional€power€under€Section€5€of€the€FourteenthÏAmendment€to€abrogate€the€immunity€of€the€states€from€suit€inÏfederal€court€which€the€states€would€otherwise€enjoy€under€theÏEleventh€Amendment€and€Supreme€Court€precedent.€€At€issue€isÏwhether€the€creation€of€a€private€cause€of€action€against€a€stateÏfor€money€damages€under€the€personal€medical€leave€provision€of€theÏFamily€and€Medical€Leave€Act,€29€U.S.C.€ðð€2612(a)(1)(D),€validlyÏabrogates€that€immunity€as€an€exercise€of€Congress's€Section€5Ïpowers.€€Ìà ` àFollowing€the€analytic€framework€suggested€by€two€recentÏSupreme€Court€decisions,€€òòKimelóó€v.€òòFlorida€Board€of€Regentsóó,€528Ð 0€ ÐU.S.€62€(2000),€and€òòBoard€of€Trustees€of€the€University€of€AlabamaóóÐ À Ðv.€òòÔ_ÔÔ_ÔGarrettÔ_Ôóó,€531€U.S.€356,€121€S.€Ct.€955€(2001),€we€hold€that€theÐ P  ÐÔ_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô's€personal€medical€leave€provision,òòóó€29€U.S.C.€ðð€2612(a)(1)(D)Ð à0 Ð(affording€leave€for€serious€personal€health€conditions),€insofarÏas€it€authorizes€private€suits€against€states,€does€not€validlyÏabrogate€the€states'€immunity.Ô_Ô׃F×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_Ô€€Every€circuit€court€which€hasÐ à" Ðaddressed€the€personal€medical€leave€provision€of€the€Ô_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô€in€thisÏcontext€has€held€that€Ô_ÔthatÔ_Ô€provision€does€not€abrogate€the€immunityÏof€the€state€as€employer€in€the€face€of€the€Eleventh€Amendment.€ÏOur€holding€is€narrow:€the€present€legislative€record€does€notÐ Ð% !* ÐÔ_Ôdemonstrate€that€the€personal€medical€leave€provision€of€the€FMLAÏis€an€appropriate€response€necessary€to€remedy€or€preventÏunconstitutional€gender€discrimination€practiced€by€the€states€asÏemployers.Ìò òÓ  ÓIó ó.Ð ð @ ÐÓ‰Óà ` àStephen€Laro€was€employed€by€the€State€of€New€HampshireÏas€a€computer€specialist€for€the€New€Hampshire€Retirement€System.€ÏIn€early€1998,€he€had€heart€bypass€surgery.€€Because€of€his€medicalÏcondition,€following€his€surgery€he€requested€and€received€leaveÏunder€the€FMLA,€which€leave€began€on€March€6,€1998.€€Laro'sÏphysician€provided€the€State€with€a€certification€which€said€thatÏLaro's€condition€required€him€to€be€out€of€work€for€at€least€eightÏweeks,€or€until€at€least€May€3,€1998.€€Apparently€his€employerÏunderstood€that€to€mean€he€requested€leave€only€until€that€day.€ÏWhen€he€did€not€return€to€work€as€of€May€5,€1998,€his€employerÏinquired,€and€Laro€explained€that€his€physician€had€not€yet€clearedÏhim€to€return€to€work.€€On€May€8,€1998,€the€State€wrote€to€Laro,Ïinforming€him€that€his€FMLA€leave€would€expire€as€of€May€29,€1998.€ÏLaro€replied€that€he€would€not€need€any€more€time€than€that,€and€onÏMay€18,€1998,€he€provided€his€employer€with€a€letter€from€hisÏphysician€authorizing€his€immediate€return€to€work.€€Laro'sÏemployer€then€told€him€that€before€returning€to€work€he€had€to€meetÏwith€his€supervisors,€and€asked€him€to€schedule€an€appointment.€€AtÏthis€time,€Laro€expected€to€return€to€work€on€Thursday,€May€21,Ïbefore€the€expiration€of€the€twelve€week€FMLA€period.€€Instead,€heÏwas€given€a€termination€letter,€dated€May€21,€1998,€and€setting€anÐ ,`'2 Ðeffective€termination€date€of€May€29,€1998.€€The€termination€letterÏstated€that€Laro€had€exhausted€his€accumulated€leave€balances€andÏthat€he€was€unable€to€meet€the€New€Hampshire€Retirement€SystemððsÏattendance€requirements.€€Other€than€that€statement€there€is€noÏexplanation€in€the€record€for€New€Hampshireððs€about„face€on€LaroððsÏability€to€return€to€work.Ìà ` àLaro€sued€for€monetary€damages€in€federal€court,€claimingÏthat€the€state€had€violated€29€U.S.C.€ðð€2615€by€terminating€hisÏemployment€before€the€expiration€of€the€twelve€week€period€ofÏunpaid€leave€guaranteed€under€the€FMLA.€€The€state€moved€toÏdismiss,€asserting€its€immunity€under€the€Eleventh€Amendment.€€TheÏdistrict€court€agreed,€and€dismissed€the€action.€€Laro€now€appeals,Ïjoined€by€the€United€States€as€intervenor.ÌÓ  Óò òII.ó óÐ P ÐÓWÓÔ‡‹^½‹‹X^½Ôà ` àThe€Eleventh€Amendment€provides€that€"[t]he€JudicialÐ à0 Ðpower€of€the€United€States€shall€not€be€construed€to€extend€to€anyÏsuit€in€law€or€equity,€commenced€or€prosecuted€against€one€of€theÏUnited€States€by€Citizens€of€another€State,€or€by€Citizens€orÏSubjects€of€any€Foreign€State."€€U.S.€Const.€amend.€XI.€€ThoughÏlimited€by€its€express€terms,€the€Amendment€has€been€construedÏbroadly€by€the€Supreme€Court,€such€that€its€"ultimate€guarantee"€isÏ"that€nonconsenting€States€may€not€be€sued€by€private€individualsÏin€federal€court."€€òòGarrettóó,€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121€S.€Ct.€at€962.Ð `'°", Ðà ` àCongress€may€abrogate€this€Eleventh€Amendment€immunityÏwhen€it€both€"unequivocally€intends€to€do€so"€and€"act[s]€pursuantÏto€a€valid€grant€of€constitutional€authority."€òòId.óó€(citing€Ô_ÔòòKimelóó,Ð ,`'2 Ð528€U.S.€at€73).׃O×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Ô#†X^½‹‹‹^½‘#ÔHere,€the€State€properly€concedes€that€CongressÐ ° Ðdid€intend€to€abrogate€the€statesðð€immunity.€€òòSeeóó€29€U.S.C.€ððÐ @ Ð2617(a)(2)€(extending€private€right€of€action€for€damages€toÏemployees€against€"any€employer€(including€a€public€agency)");€29ÏU.S.C.€ðð€2611(4)(A)(iii)€(defining€"employer"€to€include€anyÏ"public€agency"€and€cross„referencing€29€U.S.C.€ðð€203(x)€(definingÏ"public€agency"€to€include€"the€government€of€a€State€or€politicalÏsubdivision€thereof")).€€The€question,€then,€is€whether€Congress,Ïin€subjecting€the€states€to€suit€in€federal€court€for€money€damagesÏunder€the€personal€medical€leave€provision€of€the€Ô_ÔFMLAÔ_Ô,€actedÏappropriately€pursuant€to€a€valid€grant€of€constitutionalÏauthority.Ô‡‹^½‹‹X^½ÔÐ à0 Ðà ` àThe€Supreme€Court€has€held€that€Congress€may€not€properlyÏbase€its€abrogation€of€Eleventh€Amendment€immunity€upon€the€powersÏenumerated€in€Article€I.€òòóó€òòÔ_ÔGarrettÔ_Ôóó,€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121€S.€Ct.€atÐ à Ð962;€òòKimelóó,€528€U.S.€at€79;€òòSeminole€Tribe€of€Fla.óó€v.€òòFloridaóó,€517Ð  p ÐU.S.€44,€72„73€(1996).€€Where€Congress€acts€pursuant€to€a€validÏexercise€of€its€power€under€Section€5€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment,Ïhowever,€it€may€subject€Ô_ÔnonconsentingÔ_Ô€states€to€suit€in€federalÏcourt.€òòóó€òòÔ_ÔGarrettÔ_Ôóó,€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121€S.€Ct.€at€962€("[Ô_ÔT]heÔ_ÔÐ `"°& ÐEleventh€Amendment,€and€the€principle€of€state€sovereignty€which€itÏembodies,€are€necessarily€limited€by€the€enforcement€provisions€ofÏðð€5€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment.")€(quoting€òòÔ_ÔFitzpatrickÔ_Ôóó€v.€òòÔ_ÔBitzerÔ_Ôóó,Ð '`", Ð427€U.S.€445,€456€(1976));€òòSeminole€Tribeóó,€517€U.S.€at€59Ð  (ð#. ÐÔ_Ô("[T]hrough€the€Fourteenth€Amendment,€federal€power€extended€toÏintrude€upon€the€province€of€the€Eleventh€Amendment€and€thereforeÏ[€]€ðð€5€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€allowed€Congress€to€abrogateÏthe€immunity€from€suit€guaranteed€by€that€Amendment.").€€That€is€soÏbecause€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€expressly€empowers€Congress€toÏenforce€its€provisions€against€the€states.€€òòSeeóó€òòSeminole€Tribeóó,€517Ð € Ð  ÐU.S.€at€59€("[T]he€Fourteenth€Amendment,€by€expanding€federal€powerÏat€the€expense€of€state€autonomy,€[€]€fundamentally€altered€theÏbalance€of€state€and€federal€power€struck€by€the€Constitution.");Ð 0€  ÐòòEx€parte€Virginiaóó,€100€U.S.€339,€346€(1879)€("The€prohibitions€ofÐ À Ðthe€Fourteenth€Amendment€are€directed€to€the€States,€and€they€areÏto€a€degree€restrictions€of€State€power.€€It€is€these€whichÏCongress€is€empowered€to€enforce,€and€to€enforce€against€StateÏaction€.€.€.€.€€Such€enforcement€is€no€invasion€of€StateÏsovereignty.€€No€law€can€be,€which€the€people€of€the€States€have,Ïby€the€Constitution€of€the€United€States,€empowered€Congress€toÏenact.").€Ìà ` àSection€1€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€provides,€inÏrelevant€part:ÌÓÓà0 ` àNo€state€shall€make€or€enforce€any€law€which€shallÏabridge€the€privileges€or€immunities€of€citizens€of€theÏUnited€States;€nor€shall€any€State€deprive€any€person€ofÏlife,€liberty,€or€property,€without€due€process€of€law;Ïnor€deny€to€any€person€within€its€jurisdiction€the€equalÏprotection€of€the€laws.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌÓ'0ÓU.S.€Const.€amend.€XIV.€€Section€5€of€the€Fourteenth€AmendmentÏâ âgrants€Congress€the€power€to€enforce€the€substantive€guaranteesÐ h)¸$/ Ðcontained€in€Section€1€by€enacting€"appropriate€legislation."׃Q×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€òòId.óó€Ð ° Ðâ âThis€provision€embodies€an€affirmative€grant€of€power€to€Congress.€ÏòòSeeóó€òòCity€of€Boerneóó€v.€òòFloresóó,€521€U.S.€507,€517€(1997)€("All€mustÐ Ð  Ðacknowledge€that€ðð€5€is€'a€positive€grant€of€legislative€power'€toÏCongress.")€(quoting€òòKatzenbachóó€v.€òòMorganóó,€384€U.S.€641,€651Ð ð @ Ð(1966)).Ìà ` àSection€5€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment,€then,€affordsÏCongress€a€broad€Ô#†X^½‹‹‹^½º&#Ôremedial€and€prophylacticÔ‡‹^½‹‹X^½Ô€power€to€enactÐ  ð  Ðlegislation€restricting€state€action,€so€long€as€the€legislationÏreflects€a€rational€means,€under€the€standard€of€òòMcCullochóó€v.Ð À ÐòòMarylandóó,€17€U.S.€(4€Wheat.)€316,€421€(1819),€to€realize€the€end€ofÐ P  Ðenforcing€the€Fourteenth€Amendment's€substantive€prohibitions.€€òòSeeóóÐ à0 ÐòòCity€of€Boerneóó,€521€U.S.€at€517„18€òòóó("Whatever€legislation€isÐ pÀ Ðappropriate,€that€is,€adapted€to€carry€out€the€objects€theÏamendments€have€in€view,€whatever€tends€to€enforce€submission€toÏthe€prohibitions€they€contain,€and€to€secure€to€all€persons€theÏenjoyment€of€perfect€equality€of€civil€rights€and€the€equalÏprotection€of€the€laws€against€State€denial€or€invasion,€if€notÏprohibited,€is€brought€within€the€domain€of€congressional€power.")Ï(quoting€òòEx€parte€Virginiaóó,€100€U.S.€at€345„46);€òòKatzenbachóó€v.Ð `"°& ÐòòMorganóó,€384€U.S.€at€650€("By€including€ðð€5€the€draftsmen€sought€toÐ ð#@( Ðgrant€to€Congress,€by€a€specific€provision€applicable€to€theÏFourteenth€Amendment,€the€same€broad€powers€expressed€in€theÏNecessary€and€Proper€Clause,€Art.€I,€ðð€8,€cl.€18.");€òòid.óó€at€651Ð  (ð#. Ð("[T]he€òòMcCullochóó€v.€òòMarylandóó€standard€is€the€measure€of€whatÐ ° Ðconstitutes€'appropriate€legislation'€under€ðð€5€of€the€FourteenthÏAmendment.");€òòòòóósee€alsoóó€òòSouth€Carolinaóó€v.€òòKatzenbachóó,€383€U.S.€301,Ð Ð  Ð324„27€(1966)€(holding€that€under€the€enforcement€clause€of€theÏFifteenth€Amendment,€Congress€may€employ€"any€rational€means€toÏeffectuate€[its]€constitutional€prohibitions,"€and€citing€theÏstandard€of€òòMcCullochóó€v.€òòMarylandóó€as€"[t]he€basic€test€to€beÐ `  Ðapplied€in€a€case€involving€ðð€2€of€the€Fifteenth€Amendment");€òòJamesÐ  ð  ÐEverard's€Breweriesóó€v.€òòDayóó,€265€U.S.€545,€558„59€(1924)Ð 0€  Ð(legislation€under€the€enforcement€clause€of€the€EighteenthÏAmendment€assessed€under€the€standard€of€òòMcCullochóó€v.€òòMarylandóó)Ô#†X^½‹‹‹^½Ý4#ÔÔ‡‹^½‹‹X^½Ô.€Ð P  ÐIndeed,€by€its€express€terms,€the€Necessary€and€Proper€ClauseÏapplies€to€enumerated€powers€added€to€the€Constitution€after€itsÏadoption.€€òòSeeóó€U.S.€Const.€Art.€I,€ðð€8,€cl.€18€(granting€CongressÐ P Ðthe€power€"[t]o€make€all€Laws€which€shall€be€necessary€and€properÏfor€carrying€into€Execution€the€foregoing€Powers,€òòand€all€otherÐ  p ÐPowers€vested€by€this€Constitution€in€the€Government€of€the€UnitedÏStatesóó,€or€in€any€Department€or€Officer€thereof")€(emphasis€added).Ð @" Ðà ` à€The€scope€of€Section€5€of€the€Fourteenth€AmendmentÏenables€Congress€to€do€more€than€simply€prohibit€what€the€AmendmentÏitself€already€prohibits;€Congress€may€enact€legislation€which€isÏrationally€tailored€to€prevent€or€deter€the€incidence€of€violationsÏof€the€Amendment.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòGarrettóó,€531€U.S.€at€„„„,€121€S.€Ct.Ð '`", Ðat€963€("Congress€is€not€limited€to€mere€legislative€repetition€ofÏthis€Court's€constitutional€jurisprudence.");€òòKimelóó,€528€U.S.€at€81Ð 0*€%0 Ð("Congress'€ðð€5€power€is€not€confined€to€the€enactment€ofÐ À+'2 Ðlegislation€that€merely€parrots€the€precise€wording€of€theÏFourteenth€Amendment.€€Rather,€Congress'€power€'to€enforce'€theÏAmendment€includes€the€authority€both€to€remedy€and€to€deterÏviolation€of€rights€guaranteed€thereunder€by€prohibiting€a€somewhatÏbroader€swath€of€conduct,€including€that€which€is€not€itselfÏforbidden€by€the€Amendment's€text.");€òòCity€of€Boerneóó,€521€U.S.€atÐ € Ð  Ð518€("Legislation€which€deters€or€remedies€constitutionalÏviolations€can€fall€within€the€sweep€of€Congress'€enforcement€powerÏeven€if€in€the€process€it€prohibits€conduct€which€is€not€itselfÏunconstitutional€and€intrudes€into€'legislative€spheres€of€autonomyÏpreviously€reserved€to€the€States.'")€(quoting€òòFitzpatrickóó,€427Ð P  ÐU.S.€at€455).€€Ìà ` àIndeed,€the€enforcement€clause€delegates€to€Congress€inÏthe€first€instance€the€responsibility€to€determine€whatÏprophylactic€measures€are€necessary€to€enforce€most€effectively€theÏAmendment's€substantive€provisions.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòCity€of€Boerneóó,€521Ð  p ÐU.S.€at€536€("It€is€for€Congress€in€the€first€instance€toÏ'determin[e]€whether€and€what€legislation€is€needed€to€secure€theÏguarantees€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment,'€and€its€conclusions€areÏentitled€to€much€deference.")€(quoting€òòKatzenbachóó€v.€òòMorganóó,€384Ð `"°& ÐU.S.€at€651);€òòKatzenbachóó€v.€òòMorganóó,€384€U.S.€at€648€("It€is€theÐ ð#@( Ðpower€of€Congress€which€has€been€enlarged.€€Congress€is€authorizedÏto€òòenforceóó€the€prohibitions€by€appropriate€legislation.€€SomeÐ '`", Ðlegislation€is€contemplated€to€make€the€amendments€fullyÏeffective.")€(quoting€òòEx€parte€Virginiaóó,€100€U.S.€at€345);€òòsee€alsoóóÐ 0*€%0 ÐòòSouth€Carolinaóó€v.€òòKatzenbachóó,€383€U.S.€at€326€(enforcement€clauseÐ À+'2 Ðof€the€Fifteenth€Amendment€indicates€that€Congress€was€to€beÏ"chiefly€responsible€for€implementing"€the€rights€created€in€theÏAmendment).€€Ìà ` àBecause€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€affords€this€role€toÏCongress,€courts€consider€congressional€conclusions€withÏconsiderable€deference.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòKatzenbachóó€v.€òòMorganóó,€384€U.S.Ð € Ð  Ðat€653€("It€was€for€Congress€.€.€.€to€assess€and€weigh€the€variousÏconflicting€considerations€.€.€.€.€It€is€not€for€us€to€review€theÏcongressional€resolution€of€these€factors.€€It€is€enough€that€we€beÏable€to€perceive€a€basis€upon€which€the€Congress€might€resolve€theÏconflict€as€it€did.");€òòJames€Everard's€Breweriesóó,€265€U.S.€at€560Ð P  Ð("In€enacting€[enforcement]€legislation,€Congress€has€affirmed€itsÏvalidity.€€That€determination€must€be€given€great€weight;€thisÏCourt€by€an€unbroken€line€of€decisions€having€steadily€adhered€toÏthe€rule€that€every€possible€presumption€is€in€favor€of€theÏvalidity€of€an€act€of€Congress€until€overcome€beyond€rationalÏdoubt.")€(internal€quotation€marks€omitted).Ìà ` àNevertheless,€this€congressional€power€is€not€withoutÏlimits;€congressional€power€under€Section€5€"is€but€a€limitedÏauthority€[€]€extending€only€to€a€single€class€of€cases,"€thoughÏwithin€those€limits€it€is€"complete."€€òòEx€parte€Virginiaóó,€100€U.S.Ð ð#@( Ðat€348Ô#†X^½‹‹‹^½m=#ÔÔ‡‹^½‹‹X^½Ô;€òòsee€alsoóó€òòCity€of€Boerneóó,€521€U.S.€at€518€("[A]s€broad€asÐ €%Ð * Ðthe€congressional€enforcement€power€is,€it€is€not€unlimited.")Ï(quoting€òòOregonóó€v.€òòMitchellóó,€400€U.S.€112,€128€(1970)€(opinion€ofÐ  (ð#. ÐBlack,€J.)).€€Ô#†X^½‹‹‹^½ðN#ÔÔ‡‹^½‹‹X^½ÔThe€limits€are€those€"prescribed"€in€the€ConstitutionÐ 0*€%0 Ðitself.€€òòSeeóó€òòGibbonsóó€v.€òòOgdenóó,€22€U.S.€(9€Wheat.)€1,€196€(1824).Ô#†X^½‹‹‹^½