WPC! Ll؏)]XdTSŁc0Ll؏D,=|7DaP Wo3&.FZ`% ߻N+Էal H~/*A$WeaM׭3:\!YIp}S5v}&FDh@?ϓzr062OQ!4D]isTd;[*.8"CbRU8ÕG!%!Xy 'w]jΒ ,x@&IYBn !G:ZWBuʯK V93$Z [ɝ)ŠKc-wKCy Mr{|杨;쭠8EU||RȖNh6}E??bÂћȁ: 0Vg͑0dB,5] Zg}5CE4F@fϬ 9N{ؚ1u՚S8s_S H+M6 %(. 0t 0$x 0CU2>U-FcxUFU>W 0D 0r 0acb nYr 0f##!1$NR%^ T%w@`%4%% m%N%UF%b&UF&U>c& &UF(UF)M)U)U>*UF;+U<++U>e-UF--U>/UF/ B020U>1UF2UF^22U>L44UF26U>x6U>66U>88UF::>U>@UF@UFAUAU>BU>;C>yCUFEEUFGUFG1HU>IJU>KUFKCLU>MUF)NUFoNNU>]PPUFCRRU>1ToTUFV]VU>XU>CXUFXXU>oZ.ZUF\U>!]_]UF_M_U>`U>3aU>qaUFaUFa;bU>c.!dUFOfU>fU>fUFgWgU>hUF=iUFiiU>qkkUFWmmU>EoU>oUFopU>qUFqUF3ryrU>!t _tUFvU>vUFwUFIwwU>7yuyUF{c{U> }U>I}UF}}U>uU><UF-U>sUFUF=U>>#UFaU>UF+U>ӉU>OU>>5UFsU>UF=U>>#UFaU>UF+U>ӕUFUFWU>EU>+NiUFkU>YUFUFݜ#U>˞ U> 0UFp|YեU>ǦUFKU>=M{UFŨU> 01UF&lU>^ 0=UF٫U> 0OUF]U>O 0>UF˯U> 0AUF QU>C 0UF5{U>m 0 0a_ 0 0t 09( 0a 02= 0o 0:k 0 0_* 0  0k 0 B*ſ D3 C" D+< 0g 0. 06 0K 0:S 0h 0F 0N;U6U>U*U:'''''''''''''''''''aUFsU>HUF1wU>i1UFU>!NUFoU>UFU>0UF!U>QUF>U>v96[p j\ u RBUFzU>UF6U>((UFfU>HUF$ j U>\! x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.' Intro 2 (Authorized User(0Authorized User .   h:Default ParaDefault Paragraph FontXXXW\  `*Times New RomanTTW        W\  `*Times New RomanTTW`bV Q:footnote reffootnote referenceX!XX7XXX!          'XX7'  ( $    \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular     y<$ i ii= XXdd= f- i XX f-      1   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular($$  0  (Z3D$ IT!    0  . x$"J"J"J8&1 "J8XX &1      1   `  _(42$ IT!   XX       0   ` 3|x~ \  `*Times New RomanTTC\  P6QP\  `*Times New RomanTTXXP\  P6QXP<6X9`("Courier NewTTTTXXx6X@DQX@\  `*Times New RomanTTW\  P6QP<6X9`("Courier NewTTTTd6X@DQ@(>IT$XXXHP LaserJet 4 LOCAL,,,,,,0 M) ~+~~~E~~{~~E~~6)(HARED@VU<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular- -<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$ji ii=`XXdd=f- iX`X f-      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersastoconversationsbeforetheprisonerswereintouchwithgovernmentagents.Benderdoesnotappealtheserulings.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular   y<$i$ii=%XXdd=%f- i%XX f-      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular7  `$Times NewRoman  y<$&i(ii=)1XXdd=)f` i)X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$*i+ii=,1XXdd=,f` i,X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular d  y<$-i/ii=01XXdd=0f` i0X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$2i3ii=41XXdd=4f` i4X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$6i5ii=7XXdd=7f- i7XX f-      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$1i9ii=:1XXdd=:f` i:X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$@i;ii=DXXdd=Df- iDXX f-      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  x$F"J="J"Jq&1 "JqXX &1      1   `  _Oneofthem,appelleeGregorio_Igartua_ԀdelaRosa,  broughtasimilaractionin1991.See_Iguarta_ԀdelaRosa,32F.3d x 8.Inthatcase,weaffirmedthePuertoRicodistrictcourt'sdismissalofthecaseforfailuretostateaclaimuponwhichreliefcouldbegranted,concludingthatArticleIIoftheConstitutiondoesnotprovidePuertoRicoresidentstherighttovoteinpresidentialelections,seeid.at910,andthatthe `  failureofUniformedandOverseasCitizensAbsenteeVotingActtoguaranteecitizensmovingtoPuertoRicotherighttovoteinpresidentialelectionsdidnotviolatetheirdueprocessorequalprotectionrights,seeid.at10.  y<$<i>ii=?1XXdd=?f` i?X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$AiBii=C1XXdd=Cf` iCX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular 4 y<$iEii=`XXdd=f- iX`X f-      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersregardingtheirconversationswithBenderbeforetheycontactedthegovernment.Benderdoesnotappealthisaspectofthedistrictcourt'sruling.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iGii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$IiJii=K1XXdd=Kf` iKX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$HiLii=M1XXdd=Mf` iMX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$NiOii=P1XXdd=Pf` iPX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$RiSii=T1XXdd=Tf` iTX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$QiUii=h1XXdd=hf` ihX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$ViWii=X1XXdd=Xf` iXX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$"iYii=]1XXdd=]f` i]X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$Zi[ii=\1XXdd=\f` i\X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$^i_ii=`1XXdd=`f` i`X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular $ y<$biaii=c`XXdd=c&W icX`X &W      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersastoconversationsbeforetheprisonerswereintouchwithgovernmentagents. [Tr.88] Benderdoesnotappealtheserulings.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$!idii=i1XXdd=if` iiX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$eifii=g1XXdd=gf` igX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$kilii=m1XXdd=mf` imX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular $ y<$on=pVpXXdd=pJ pXVpX J      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersastoconversationsbeforetheprisonerswereintouchwithgovernmentagents. [Tr.88] Benderdoesnotappealtheserulings.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$risii=t1XXdd=tf` itX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$viwii=x1XXdd=xf` ixX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$uiyii=}1XXdd=}f` i}X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$zi{ii=|1XXdd=|f` i|X1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$~iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$=VpXXdd=J XVpX J      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersastoconversationsbeforetheprisonerswereintouchwithgovernmentagents.Benderdoesnotappealtheserulings.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular 2 y<$iii=`XXdd=f- iX`X f-      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersregardingtheirconversationswithBenderbeforetheycontactedthegovernment.Benderdoesnotappealthispartofthedistrictcourt'sruling.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular 4 y<$iii=`XXdd=f- iX`X f-      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersregardingtheirconversationswithBenderbeforetheycontactedthegovernment.Benderdoesnotappealthisaspectofthedistrictcourt'sruling.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular 4 y<$iii=SXXdd=&u iXSX &u      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersregardingtheirconversationswithBenderbeforetheycontactedthegovernment.Benderdoesnotappealthisaspectofthedistrictcourt'sruling.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular 4 y<$iii=SXXdd=&u iXSX &u      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothestatementsofthetwoprisonersregardingtheirconversationswithBenderbeforetheycontactedthegovernment.Benderdoesnotappealthisaspectofthedistrictcourt'sruling.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular  y<$iii=1XXdd=f` iX1X f`      2   `  _ThedistrictcourtdeniedBender'smotioninsofarasit  pertainedtothetwoprisoners. [Tr.88] \( 9Z+&Courier Regular(Y2h$ IT!  <j 9Z+.Courier New Regular h)000  _ ` P X@* r $ X*X       1   `  _TheCommonwealtharguesthatstare_decisis_isnot"an  inexorablecommand,"particularlyinconstitutionalcases.ButIgartuaIisbasedonSupremeCourtopinionswhichthatcourthas @ notreconsideredandwearenotfreetodoso.And"[e]veninconstitutionalcases,stare_decisis_carriessuchpersuasiveforce   that[eventheSupremeCourthas]alwaysrequiredadeparturefromprecedenttobesupportedbysome'specialjustification.'"Dickersonv.UnitedStates,120S.Ct.2326,2336(2000). x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular0.Normal<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<:Definition T<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<GD:Definition L , ;1` hp x (#;  8.` hp x (#8<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular86Definition<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular('z&H1      XXX<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular(o&H2  XXX<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular(o&H3  XXX(&H4 XXX XXX(o&H5  XXX(o&H6  XXX20Address8SP6Blockquote , , ;1` hp x (#;   8.` hp x (#8,*CITE,dl*CODEK<6X9`(Courier NewKXXXS\  `&Times New RomanS42Emphasis6&)4Hyperlink            <:FollowedHype    4go2Keyboard K<6X9`(Courier NewK XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS<:Preformatted/%  ,Kk (#/K<6X9`(Courier NewKXXXS\  `&Times New RomanS/%  ,Kk (#/<:zBottom of I4$ ** ddI  B    ?%2A`Arial?9*  dd9  XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS  &0 d d'dxddd'dxd<:zTop of ForI4$** ddI  B    ?%2A`Arial?9*  dd9  XXXS\  `&Times New RomanS  0Kl.SampleK<6X9`(Courier NewKS\  `&Times New RomanS0.Strong 8dl6TypewriterK<6X9`(Courier NewKXXXS\  `&Times New RomanS42Variable:8HTML MarkupB      2 0CommentB  (O$<6X9`(Courier New\  `&Times New Roman%2A`Arial<6X9`("Courier 10cpi  $ X*X       2   `  _ԀSeeTreatyofParis,Dec.10,1898,UnitedStates  Spain,30Stat.1754.ArticleIXofthetreatyreads:"ThecivilrightsandpoliticalstatusofthenativeinhabitantsoftheterritoriesherebycededtotheUnitedStatesshallbedeterminedbytheCongress."<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular > $ X*X       3   `  _ԀForexample,onJuly28,1898,threedaysafterthe  landingofAmericantroopsat_Gunica_,GeneralNelsonA.Miles,whocommandedtheexpeditionaryforce,proclaimed:8   ` IntheprosecutionofwaragainstthekingdomofSpainbythepeopleoftheUnitedStates,inthecauseofliberty,justiceandhumanity,itsmilitaryforceshavecometooccupytheislandofPortoRico.Theycome ( x  bearingthebanneroffreedom,inspiredbynoblepurposes,....    8   ` Theybringyouthefosteringarmsofafreepeople,whosegreatestpowerisjusticeandhumanitytoalllivingwithintheirfold....    8   ` Theyhavecomenottomakewaronthepeopleofthecountry,whoforcenturieshavebeenoppressed;but,onthecontrary,tobringprotection,notonlytoyourselves,buttoyourproperty,promoteyourprosperityandbestowtheimmunitiesandblessingsofourenlightenmentandliberalinstitutionsandgovernment....    AnnualReportoftheMajorGeneralCommandingtheArmy,NelsonA.Miles,Nov.5,1898,Messages,18981899,at3132. 0      Itshouldbenotedthat,atthetimeofGeneralMiles'arrival,andsincetheenactmentoftheSpanishConstitutionof1812,PuertoRicansenjoyedSpanishcitizenshipandvotingrepresentationintheSpanishParliament,rightswhichwereconfirmedintheConstitutionof1876andintheAutonomicCharterof1897.See1_Jos_Ԁ_Tras_Ԁ_Monge_,_Historia_Ԁ_Constitucional_ԀdePuerto  Rico3435(1983).<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J"J"J&1 "JXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular ' $ X*X       4   `  _ԀSeeU.S.CensusBureau,PopulationDiv.,PR991  EstimatesofthePopulationofPuertoRico_Municipios_,July1,1999B.` hp x (#XB,(July21,2000) @ .Thisisalargerpopulationthan26oftheStatesandmorethanthecombinedpopulationofMaine,NewHampshire,andRhodeIsland,whichtogetherwithMassachusettsandPuertoRicoconstitutetheFirstCircuit.SeeU.S.CensusBureau,Population ( x Div.,ST993StatePopulationEstimates:AnnualTimeSeries,  @ (December29,1999).<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$"J "J"J!&1 "J!XX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular  $ X*X       5   `  _Ԁ8U.S.C.1402(1999)(governingthecitizenshipof  personsborninPuertoRicoonorafterApril11,1899).TheresidentsofPuertoRicowerefirstgrantedcitizenshipin1917. @ SeeJonesAct(PuertoRico),5,ch.145,39Stat.951(1917).<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$#"J$"J"J%&1 "J%XX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular  $ X*X       6   `  _ԀTheresidentsofPuertoRicodoelectaResident  CommissionertorepresenttheirinterestsbeforeCongress,butthatofficial'slackofavoteobviouslydiminisheshisabilitytoeffectivelyrepresentthem.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$'"J("J"J)&1 "J)XX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular  $ X*X       7   `  _ԀBalzacv.PortoRico,258U.S.298(1922);_Ocampo_v.  UnitedStates,234U.S.91(1914);_Dorr_v.UnitedStates,195U.S. x 138(1904);Hawaiiv._Mankichi_,190U.S.197(1903);_Downes_v. @ _Bidwell_,182U.S.244(1901);Dooleyv.UnitedStates,182U.S.222 X (1901);_DeLima_v._Bidwell_,182U.S.1(1901) .<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$+"J,"J"J-&1 "J-XX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular  $ X*X       8   `  _ԀArticle4,section3,clause2,oftheConstitution  states:"TheCongressshallhavePowertodisposeofandmakeallneedfulRulesandRegulationsrespectingtheTerritoryorotherPropertybelongingtotheUnitedStates...."<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$/"J0"J"J1&1 "J1XX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular { $ X*X       9   `  _ԀSee,e.g.,DeLima,182U.S.1,200(1901)(PuertoRico   partoftheUnitedStatesforcustomspurposes).  $ X*X       10   `  _ԀSee,e.g.,_Downes_,182U.S.244,287(1901)("[T]he  IslandofPortoRicoisaterritoryappurtenantandbelongingtotheUnitedStates,butnotapartoftheUnitedStates"forrevenuepurposes).  $ X*X       11   `  _ԀSee_Foraker_ԀAct,7,31Stat.77(1900)(codifiedas  amendedat48U.S.C.733(1987)). Q $ X*X       12   `  _ԀTheterm"nationaloftheUnitedStates"isdefinedat  8U.S.C.1101(a)(22)tomean"(A)acitizenoftheUnitedStates,or(B)apersonwho,thoughnotacitizenoftheUnitedStates,owespermanentallegiancetotheUnitedStates."TheonlypersonscurrentlyholdingsuchstatusareresidentsofAmericanSamoaandSwainsIsland.  $ X*X       13   `  _ԀSeeJonesAct(PuertoRico),5,ch.145,39Stat.951  (1917).ThisstatuswasreiteratedintheNationalityActof1940,202,ch.876,54Stat.1139(1940),inwhichCongressexplicitlystatedthatallpersonsborninPuertoRicoautomaticallybecamecitizensoftheUnitedStates,asituationanalogoustothatexistingwithinthethencontiguousStatesundertheFourteenthAmendment.ThatprovisionwasrepealedbytheImmigrationandNationalityActofJune27,1952,403,ch.477,66Stat.280,andreplacedbytheprovisionnowcodifiedat8U.S.C.1402(1999)  @ (governingthecitizenshipofallpersonsborninPuertoRicoonorafterApril11,1899). f $ X*X       14   `  _ԀBalzacinvolvedaclaimtotrialbyjuryinacriminal  prosecution,whichtheCourtconcludedwasunavailableinPuertoRicobecausetrialbyjurywasnota"fundamental"right.Balzac, @ 258U.S.at31213;cf.Duncanv.Louisiana,391U.S.145,149 X (1968)(holdingthat"trialbyjuryincriminalcasesisfundamentaltotheAmericanschemeofjustice").Balzachasnever  beenreversedandhasbeencitedapprovinglybytheCourtasrecentlyas1990.SeeUnitedStatesv._Verdugo_Ԅ_Urqudez_,494U.S. ( x 259,268(1990).Incomparison,in  Reidv.Covert,354U.S.1  @ (1957),theCourtrefusedtoextendthereasoningoftheInsular    CasestoAmericanciviliansabroadwhohadbeenconvictedbya    courtmartialforafelonyoffensewithoutbeingaffordedtherighttoajurytrial.JusticeBlack,writingforafourJusticeplurality(noopinionofanyJusticesgarneredamajority,andonlyeightJusticesparticipatedinthecase),stated:"[I]nviewofourheritageandthehistoryoftheadoptionoftheConstitutionandtheBillofRights,itseemspeculiarlyanomaloustosaythattrialbeforeacivilianjudgeandbyanindependentjurypickedfromthecommoncitizenryisnotafundamentalright."JusticeBlackwentfurther,rejectingBalzacandtheotherInsularCasesasoutdated,  seeid.at14,butconcurringJusticesFrankfurterandHarlan P refusedtogosofar,seeid.at54,66.Ironically,becausethe h holdingoftheCourtextendstheprotectionofUnitedStatescitizenshiptoaproceedingthattookplaceinEnglandquathe  conditionofUnitedStatescitizenship,thiscaseseemstostandforthepropositionthatcertainconstitutionalrightsareinherent 8 inUnitedStatescitizenship. ` $ X*X       15   `  _ԀSeePublicLaw600,ch.446,64Stat.319(1950)  (codifiedat48U.S.C.731(b)(1994)). $ X*X       16   `  _ԀEventheterm"Commonwealth,"asappliedtoPuerto  Rico,ismeaningless.Massachusetts,Pennsylvania,andVirginiaareallentitled"commonwealths,"yetPuertoRicoiscertainlynotequivalenttothemasapoliticalentity.PuertoRicoandtheUnitedStatescertainlydonotforma"CommonwealthofNations"noristheirrelationshipinanywaysimilartothatofthenationsformingthe"BritishCommonwealth."Infact,theofficialtitleof"CommonwealthofPuertoRico"isalsoofficiallyinSpanish"_Estado_Libre_Asociado_,"whichliterallytranslatedmeans"FreeAssociatedState."PuertoRicoisneitherfreenorastate,andastobeing"associated"withtheUnitedStates,theSupremeCourtruledlongagothat"theIslandofPortoRicoisaterritoryappurtenantandbelongingtotheUnitedStates,butnotapartoftheUnitedStates"forsomepurposes._Downes_,182U.S.at287(PuertoRico (  notpartoftheU.S.forrevenuepurposes).ButseeDeLima,182   U.S.at199200(PuertoRicopartoftheU.S.fortariffpurposes)(stating,ironically,"Weareunabletoacquiesceinthisassumptionthataterritorymaybeatthesametimebothforeignanddomestic").Theconfusiondoesnotendwiththename,asthe  variouscourts,includingofcoursetheSupremeCourtandourown,havecontributedmuchtothiscondition.See_Rodrguez_v.Popular P DemocraticParty,457U.S.1(1982);Harrisv.Rosario,446U.S. h 651(1980);_Califano_v.Torres,435U.S.1(1978);ExaminingBd.of 0 _Eng'rs_v.Flores,426U.S.572(1976);_Calero_ԀToledov.Pearson  YachtLeasingCo.,416U.S.663(1974);_Mercado_v.PuertoRico,214 p F.3d34,40,44(1stCir.2000);Dvila_Prez_v.LockheedMartin 8 Corp.,202F.3d464(1stCir.2000);Morenov.UnitedStates,38 P F.3d1204(Fed.Cir.1994);UnitedStatesv._Snchez_,992F.2d1143  (11thCir.1993);TrailerMarineTrans.Corp.v.RiveraVzquez,  977F.2d1,7(1stCir.1992);UnitedStatesv._L;pez_Ԅ_Andino_,831 X F.2d1164(1stCir.1987);_C;rdova_v._Simonpietri_ԀIns.Agencyv.  p ChaseManhattanBank,649F.2d36(1stCir.1981).  $ X*X       17   `  _Ԁ SeeHearingsBeforetheHouseComm.onResourceson  H.R.4751,106thCong.,(Oct.4,2000);YoungBill,H.R.856,105th  Cong.(1997);_Fern;s_ԄMurrayBill,H.R.5926,86thCong.(1959);_Aspinall_ԀBill,H.R.5945,88thCong.(1963);HearingsBeforeHouse 0 Subcomm.onTerritorialAffairsonH.R.5945,88thCong.(1963). H $ X*X       18   `  _ԀSee_Plessy_v.Ferguson,163U.S.537(1896).  $ X*X       19   `  _ԀForexample,morethan62,000PuertoRicansservedin  WorldWarII.InKorea,over43,000PuertoRicansserved,includingalmost40,000volunteers,andapproximately3,540ofthemlosttheirlivesindefenseoftheUnitedStates,thesecondhighestratepercapitaofanyjurisdictionintheNation.Some48,000PuertoRicansservedinVietnam;approximately270werekilledandmorethan3,000wounded.PuertoRicansalsoservedinWorldWarIandineverysignificantUnitedStatesconflictsinceVietnam,includingthePersianGulfWar.SeeLanceOliver,Puerto  @ Rico'sOverlookedVeterans,P.R.Herald(Nov.11,1999),available    onlineat.<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$>"J?"J"J@&1 "J@XX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$B"JC"J"JD&1 "JDXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$F"JG"J"JH&1 "JHXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular > $J9K99L+ 9LX67X +      3   `  _ԀForexample,onJuly28,1898,threedaysafterthe  landingofAmericantroopsat_Gunica_,GeneralNelsonA.Miles,whocommandedtheexpeditionaryforce,proclaimed:8   ` IntheprosecutionofwaragainstthekingdomofSpainbythepeopleoftheUnitedStates,inthecauseofliberty,justiceandhumanity,itsmilitaryforceshavecometooccupytheislandofPortoRico.Theycome ( x  bearingthebanneroffreedom,inspiredbynoblepurposes,....    8   ` Theybringyouthefosteringarmsofafreepeople,whosegreatestpowerisjusticeandhumanitytoalllivingwithintheirfold....    8   ` Theyhavecomenottomakewaronthepeopleofthecountry,whoforcenturieshavebeenoppressed;but,onthecontrary,tobringprotection,notonlytoyourselves,buttoyourproperty,promoteyourprosperityandbestowtheimmunitiesandblessingsofourenlightenmentandliberalinstitutionsandgovernment....    AnnualReportoftheMajorGeneralCommandingtheArmy,NelsonA.Miles,Nov.5,1898,Messages,18981899,at3132. 0      Itshouldbenotedthat,atthetimeofGeneralMiles'arrival,andsincetheenactmentoftheSpanishConstitutionof1812,PuertoRicansenjoyedSpanishcitizenshipandvotingrepresentationintheSpanishParliament,rightswhichwereconfirmedintheConstitutionof1876andintheAutonomicCharterof1897.See1_Jos_Ԁ_Tras_Ԁ_Monge_,_Historia_Ԁ_Constitucional_ԀdePuerto  Rico3435(1983).<j 9Z+.Courier New Regular x$J"JK"J"JL&1 "JLXX &1      1   `  _.\( 9Z+&Courier Regular IT!000  _    *,X` XX*8XXdd8  TX IT0000  X00XXX0@k k  LpMXX'L$MMLpUnitedStatesCourtofAppeals#'X/XM'L$#Ԉ  @ 'R! QX'X/FortheFirstCircuit #'X/X Q'R!##XXX'X/#Ԉ j @<< ____________________No.002083  GREGORIO_IGARTUA_ԀDELAROSA,ETAL.,O@Plaintiffs,Appellees,  @@tt)v.@@UNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA,@@<< Defendant,Appellant.@@<< ____________________COMMONWEALTHOFPUERTORICO,_Intervenor_.@@<< ____________________@@ APPEALFROMTHEUNITEDSTATESDISTRICTCOURT@@ FORTHEDISTRICTOFPUERTORICO@@ [Hon.Jaime_Pieras_,Jr.,SeniorU.S.DistrictJudge] .~  @@<< ____________________ @`  @  @  @X  @ @@'Before_Torruella_,ChiefJudge, #.& Lynchand_Lipez_,CircuitJudges. $' @@<< ____________________  * X,X` X*  MatthewM._Collette_,Attorney,U.S.DepartmentofJustice, (#, withwhomJacobM.Lewis,Attorney,U.S.DepartmentofJustice, V)$- DavidW.Ogden,AssistantAttorneyGeneral,andGuillermoGil,U.S. *n%. Attorney,wereonbrief,forappellant.  Gregorio_Igartua_forappellee. +&0   AngelE._Rotger_Ԁ_Sabat_,AttorneyGeneral,Commonwealthof v,'1 PuertoRicoand_Gustavo_ԀA._Gelpi_,SolicitorGeneral,Commonwealth >-(2 ofPuertoRico,withwhomJohnF._Nevares_,CarlosLugo-_Fiol_,and .V)3 Smithand_Nevares_,wereonbrief,for_intervenor_Ԅappellee  CommonwealthofPuertoRico.  CharlesJ.Cooper,MichaelA._Carvin_,JeffreyA._Tomasevich_, @ andCooper,_Carvin_Ԁ&_Rosenthal_onbriefforamicuscuriaePopular X DemocraticPartyofPuertoRico..,X` XXG. ` @<< ____________________~  ~~ @`  @  @  @X  @ ~~~S~~~~o~~~O~~c~~~otber~~~tober13,2000~~ ~@<< ____________________  (   0T   @* ` P ,X` X* `  Per_Curiam_ .OnApril5,2000acomplaintwasfiledin  theUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofPuertoRicobyelevenindividualsallegingthatascitizensoftheUnitedStatesresidinginPuertoRicotheyarebeingdeprivedoftherighttovoteforthecandidatestotheofficesofPresidentandVicePresidentoftheUnitedStates,aconditionwhichtheyviewtobea"violationoftheirconstitutionalrightstothesameprivilegesandimmunities,treatyrights,dueprocessandequalprotectionofthelaws"enjoyedbyUnitedStatescitizensresidingintheStates. ` Plaintiffs,ineffect,comprisetwoseparategroups.ThefirstincludesindividualswhohavealwaysresidedinPuertoRicoandwhoseclaimisbasedontheirallegedrighttovoteforthenationalofficesinquestionbecausetheyconsideritarightinherentinUnitedStatescitizenship.ThesecondgroupiscomprisedofformerresidentsofstateswhowereeligibletovoteduringsuchresidenceintheStatesbutbecameineligibletodosoupontakingresidencyinPuertoRico.BothgroupsclaimentitlementtovotepursuanttotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesandpursuanttotreatyobligationsassumedbytheUnitedStatesundertheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,_U.N.T.S._ԀNo.14668,Vol.999(1976)p.171,ratified,138 #@( Cong.Rec.S4781(April2,1992)("_ICCPR_").Inaddition,thesecondgroupalsocallsintoquestiontheconstitutionalityoftheUniformedandOverseasCitizensAbsenteeVotingAct(_NOCAVA_),42U.S.C.1973ff1973ff6,whichallowsUnitedStatescitizensresidingoutsidetheUnitedStatestovoteinfederalelectionsas +'2 _ absenteevotersintheirlaststateofresidence.BecausePuertoRicoisincludedwithinthedefinitionof"UnitedStates,"42U.S.C.1973ff6(8),residentsofPuertoRicowhowouldotherwisequalifytovotepursuanttothisstatutearedisqualified.Thisisclaimedtobeaviolationofvariousconstitutionalprovisions. ` PlaintiffssoughtadeclaratoryjudgmentagainsttheUnitedStatesaffirmingtheinvalidityofthedenialoftheirallegedrighttovoteforthenationalofficesinquestion.Inaddition,theysoughtanorderrequiringtheUnitedStates"totakeallthenecessarysteps"toimplementtheirallegedrighttovoteforPresidentandVicePresident. ` OnJune5,2000theUnitedStatesmovedtodismissthecomplaintclaiming,insubstance,thattheallegationscontainedinthecomplaint"arevirtuallyidenticaltothosepreviouslybroughtbyelevenindividuals,including[Plaintiff]IgartuainthecaseofIgartuadelaRosa,etal.v.UnitedStates,C.912506,"inwhich  p theDistrictCourt(Acosta,J.)dismissedplaintiffs'requestfordeclaratoryandinjunctivereliefforfailuretostateaclaimuponwhichreliefcouldbegranted.SeeIgartuav.UnitedStates,842  $ F.Supp.607(D.P.R.1994),aff'd,32F.3d8,9(1stCir.1994), `"& (IgartuaI),cert.denied,514U.S.1049(1995).TheUnitedStates #@( allegedthatIgartuaIrequireddismissalofthepresentaction % * undertheprinciplesofresjudicataandstaredecisis. '`",  ` ThismotionwasdeniedbytheDistrictCourtonJuly19,2000inanextensiveopinion,seeIgartuav.UnitedStates,107 0*%0 F.Supp.2d140(D.P.R.2000)(IgartuaII),inwhichitruledthat +'2 theprovisionsoftheICCPRwerenotselfexecutingandthusdidnotgiverisetoprivatelyenforceablerightsunderUnitedStateslaw,andfurtherthatNOCAVAdidnotviolatePlaintiffs'constitutionalrights.Itruled,however,thatpreventingplaintiffsfromvotinginpresidentialandvicepresidentialelectionswasunconstitutional. ` Thereafter,onJuly27,2000theCommonwealthofPuertoRicoanditsgovernor,PedroRossell;,movedtointerveneinthisaction,ineffectsupportingtheclaimsofPlaintiffs.ThisinterventionwasallowedbythedistrictcourtonJuly28,2000. ` OnAugust1,2000theUnitedStatesfileditsAnswer,allegingindefensesubstantiallythesamegroundsasclaimedinitsMotiontoDismiss,andinadditioncontendingthattheissuespresentedbyplaintiffsraised"politicalquestionsoutsidethejurisdictionofthefederalcourts." ` Afterseveralinterveningproceduralevents,onAugust29,2000thedistrictcourtenteredaFinalOpinionandOrder,essentiallyconfirmingitsJuly29opinion,andenteringaFinalJudgment:(1)Declaring"thattheUnitedStatesCitizensresidinginPuertoRicohavetherighttovoteinPresidentialelectionsandthatitselectoralvotesmustbecountedinCongress";(2)Concluding"thattheGovernmentofPuertoRicohastheobligationtoorganizethemeansbywhichtheUnitedStatescitizensresidinginPuertoRicowillvoteintheupcomingandsubsequentPresidentialelectionsandtoprovideforthe +'2 appointmentofPresidentialelectors,"andordering"theGovernmentofPuertoRicotoactwithallpossibleexpediencytocreatesuchmechanism;"and(3)Ordering"theGovernmentofPuertoRicotoinformtheCourtofalldevelopmentsrelatedtoitsimplementationofthePresidentialvoteuntilthevotesarecountedpursuanttotheTwelfthAmendmenttotheConstitution." ` OnSeptember10,2000theLegislatureofPuertoRicoenactedLawNo.403forthepurposeofallowingthecitizensoftheUnitedStatesofAmericadomiciledinPuertoRicotovoteintheelectionfortheofficesofPresidentandVicePresidentoftheUnitedStates,andtoestablishtheproceduresandmechanismstoeffectuatesaidvote.ThisbillwassignedintolawonSeptember10,2000andbecameeffectiveimmediately.SeeLawNo.403of P September10,2000,4.6. ` OnSeptember11,2000theUnitedStatesfileditsNoticeofAppealfromthisFinalJudgmentandfromtheFinalOpinionandOrderalsoenteredbythedistrictcourtonAugust29,2000,whichcontainedprovisionssubstantiallythesameasthoseintheFinalJudgment.NeitherthePlaintiffsnortheIntervenorGovernmentofPuertoRicoandGovernorappealed. ` Forthereasonsstatedherein,wereverseandvacatetheFinalJudgmentandFinalOpinionandOrderandremandwithinstructionstodismisstheaction.SeeTorenv.Toren,191F.3d (#. 23(1stCir.1999).Thiscourt,ofcourse,expressesnoopinionwithregardtothevalidityunderPuertoRicanlawofLawNo.403. +'2 @* I    ` InIgartuaI,acasebroughtbythesameleadplaintiff @ andlawyerwhoappearscurrentlybeforeus,thiscourtheldwithundeniableclaritythattheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesdoesnotconferuponUnitedStatescitizensresidinginPuertoRicoarighttoparticipateinthenationalelectionforPresidentandVicePresident.Addressingpreciselytheargumentpresentedtothedistrictcourtinthiscase,thiscourtrecognizedthatArticleIIoftheConstitutionexplicitlyprovidesthatthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesshallbeelectedbyelectorswhoarechosenbythe  States,insuchmanneraseachstate'slegislaturemaydirect.See P id.at9(citingU.S.Const.Art.II,1,cl.2).Weconcluded 0 thatPuertoRico,whichisnotaState,maynotdesignateelectorstotheelectoralcollege,andthereforethattheresidentsofPuertoRicohavenoconstitutionalrighttoparticipateinthenationalelectionofthePresidentandVicePresident.Seeid.at  p 910. ` SinceourdecisioninIgartuaIin1994,PuertoRicohas @" notbecomeaState,norhastheUnitedStatesamendedtheConstitutiontoallowUnitedStatescitizensresidinginPuertoRicotovoteforPresident,asitdidforUnitedStatescitizensresidingintheDistrictofColumbiawiththeTwentyThirdAmendmenttotheConstitution.Seeid.at10.Absentsucha '`", changeinthestatusofPuertoRicooranamendmenttotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,ourdecisioninIgartuaI 0*%0 controlsthiscase,unlesstherehasbeeninterveningcontrolling +'2 orcompellingauthority.SeeGatelyv.Massachusetts,2F.3d1221,  1226(1stCir.1993)("Thedoctrineofstaredecisisrenderstherulingoflawinacasebindinginfuturecasesbeforethesamecourtorothercourtsowingobediencetothedecision.");    1      ׀seealso `  Williamsv.AshlandEng'gCo.,45F.3d588,592(1stCir.1995)  @ ("Inamultipanelcircuit,newlyconstitutedpanelsare,forthemostpart,boundbypriorpaneldecisionscloselyonpoint.").@tt) II     ` ThedistrictcourtattemptedtodistinguishIgartuaIin 0  itsJuly19opinion(butnotinitsFinalOpinionandOrder)onreasoningthat"whileIgartuaIcenteredonPlaintiff'sinability P tovoteforthePresidentandVicePresident,theinstantcaserevolvesaroundtheirinabilitytoelectdelegatestotheelectoralcollege."IgartuaII,107F.Supp.2dat145.Thiseffortat P distinguishingIgartuaIobviouslyfails.UndertheConstitution,  theappointmentofelectors(throughthepopularvote)isthemeansbywhichthePresidentandVicePresidentarechosen.U.S.Const.,Art.II,1,cl.2;Amend.XII.ThiscourtheldinIgartuaIthat @" thecitizensresidentinPuertoRicodonothavearighttovoteinpresidentialelectionsbecausePuertoRico"isnotentitledunderArticleIItochooseelectorsforthePresident."IgartuaI,32 #@( F.3dat910. ` Therearetwoexceptionstotherulethatearlierdecisionsarebinding.First,anearlierpaneldecision"maybeunderminedbycontrollingauthority,subsequentlyannounced,suchasanopinionoftheSupremeCourt."Williams,45F.3dat592.  @ Thesecondexceptionisfor"thoserelativelyrareinstancesinwhichauthoritythatpostdatestheoriginaldecision,althoughnotdirectlycontrolling,neverthelessoffersasoundreasonforbelievingthattheformerpanel,inlightoffreshdevelopment,wouldchangeitscollectivemind."Id.TheCommonwealthargues  thatthoseexceptionsaremethereinlightoftwoSupremeCourtdecisions:Ricev.Cayetano,120S.Ct.1044(Feb.23,2000),and 0 U.S.TermLimitsv.Thornton,514U.S.770(1995).Neithercase p supporttheCommonwealth'sargument. ` TheCourtinRicestruckdownaHawaiistatutethat  imposedracebasedvotingqualificationsbasedontheFifteenthAmendment'smandatethatneithertheNationalGovernmentnorthestatesmaydenyorabridgetherighttovoteonaccountofrace. @" SeeRice,120S.Ct.at105657.ThisFifteenthAmendmentruling  $ onracialvotingclassificationsdoesnotimpactthereasoningin `"& IgartuaIthatArticleIIgovernstherighttovoteinpresidential #@( elections.TherelianceontheCourt'sholdinginU.S.TermLimits % * similarlyisinapt.TheCourtruledthatStateslackthepowertoimposequalificationsforofficesoftheUnitedStatesCongressinadditiontothosesetforthintheConstitution.See514U.S.at 0*%0 81820.TheCourt'slanguagedescribingthe"fundamentalprinciple +'2 ofourrepresentativedemocracy,"whichappelleesciteintheirbrief,servestoamplifytheCourt'sholdingthatthestatescannotimposerestrictionsonfederalelections,butalsodoesnotaltertheArticleIIanalysisinIgartuaI.Thus,neithercasestands `  forthepropositionthattherighttovoteinthepresidentialelectionisderivedfromanysourceotherthanArticleIIoftheConstitution. ` BecauseIgartuaIisbindingauthority,thedistrict   courterredinnotdismissingtheaction. ` ThejudgmentandorderoftheDistrictCourtis reversed  andvacated andthecaseis remanded withinstructionsthatthe P actionbedismissedwithprejudice._ 0   Concurrencefollows.  p CC ` ~ ~X*XXX*TORRUELLA,CircuitJudge(Concurring). AsIdidin  IgartaI,IjointheCourt'sopinioninthisappealbecauseI  believeittobetechnicallyand,asthelawnowstands,legallycorrectinitsconclusionthattheConstitutiondoesnotguaranteeUnitedStatescitizensresidinginPuertoRicotherighttovoteinthenationalPresidentialelection.IalsoagreewiththeCourt'sindicationthattoday'sdecisionexpressesnoopinionwithregardtothevalidityunderPuertoRicolawofLaw403ofSeptember10,2000,whichisthesubjectofseparatelitigationandwhichIconcludeisnotproperlybeforeus.Iam,however,compelledtowriteseparatelybecauseIcannolongerremainsilenttothesubjacentquestion,becausefrommyperspective,therearelargerissuesatstake.@tt) I.  P  ` Morethan100yearsago,attheconclusionoftheSpanishAmericanWarof1898,PuertoRicowascededtotheUnitedStatesbySpain.    2      ׀Despiteloftyrhetoricatthetimeextollingthe P  virtuesofAmericandemocracy,~x~~Ix~    3      ׀theUnitedStateshassince 0" exercisedalmostunfetteredpoweroverPuertoRicoandthenearly4,000,000UnitedStatescitizenswhocurrentlyresidethere.    4      ׀ @ AlthoughpersonsborninPuertoRicoarecitizensoftheUnitedStatesatbirth,"x    5      ׀andthereby"owe[]allegiancetotheUnited `  States,"Kawakitav.UnitedStates,343U.S.717,736(1952),while  residinginPuertoRicotheyenjoyfewerrightsthancitizensoftheUnitedStatesthatresideinthefiftyStates,seeUnited   Statesv.VerdugoUrqudez,494U.S.259,268(1990)(andcases `  citedtherein),oreveninforeigncountries,seeReidv.Covert,  @ 354U.S.1(1957) .Undoubtedlythemostglaringevidenceofthis    egregiousdisparityisthefactthattheydonotelectasinglevotingrepresentative&    6      ׀toafederalgovernmentthatexercises   almostabsolutepoweroverthem. ` ThisanomaloussituationarisesprimarilyasaresultofthedecisionsoftheSupremeCourtintheInsularCases,*    7      ׀which P establishedasearlyas1901theplenarypowerofCongressoverPuertoRicounderthesocalled"territorial"clauseoftheConstitution..`     8      ׀Inaseriesofnarrowlydivideddecisions,the P CourtheldthatPuertoRicowasan"unincorporatedterritory,"    seeInsularCases,supranote6,andasaresultpartoftheUnited  p Statesforsomepurposes2H     9      ׀andnotforothers.3X    10      ׀Assuch,Congress   washeldtohaveplenarypowerovertheinternalandexternalaffairsoftheIsland,subjectnoteventotheBillofRightsexceptinsofarasthoseguaranteesmightbeexplicitlyextendedtotheIslandbyCongress.SeeDownes,182U.S.at286 . `   ` Between1898and1917,personsresidinginPuertoRicowereconsideredtobecitizensofPuertoRico4@    11      ׀and"nationals"of    theUnitedStates.5    12      ׀Thisconditionwaschangedin1917,however, `  whenCongressgrantedUnitedStatescitizenshipenmassetothe   residentsofPuertoRico.6    13      ׀Notwithstandingthisapparentupgrading 0  ofthepersonalstatusofPuertoRico'sresidents,theSupremeCourtin1922inBalzacv.PortoRico,258U.S.298(1922), P establishedtheinferiornatureoftheUnitedStatescitizenshipheldbyresidentsofPuertoRicobyconcludingthattheConstitution'sprotectionofthesenewcitizenswaslimitedtothoserightsdeemedbytheCourttobe"fundamental."7    14      ׀Cf. Yick `  Wov.Hopkins,118U.S.356,370(1886)(votingis"afundamental  @ politicalright,because[itis]preservativeofallrights");see    alsoReynoldsv.Sims,377U.S.533,562(1964). `  @88) II.     ` SinceBalzacthecivilrightsofUnitedStatescitizens   residinginPuertoRico,particularlytheirnationalpoliticalrights,haveremaineddormantatbest,subjecttothevagariesof  Congress,andtheconspicuousinattentionofthejudiciary.Thegrantingofsocalled"Commonwealth"statusin1952,8    15      ׀itselfan @ enigmaticcondition9     16      ׀whichmerelyallowedtheresidentsofPuerto   Ricolimitedselfgovernment,didnothingtocorrectPuertoRico'sfundamentalconditionofnationalunempowerment,embodiedmostnotablyinthelackofvotingrepresentationintheCongressandtheineligibilitytovoteforPresidentandVicePresident.TheUnitedStatescitizensresidinginPuertoRicotothisdaycontinue   tohavenorealsayinthechoiceofthosewho,fromafar,reallygovernthem,norastotheenactment,application,andadministrationofthemyriadoffederallawsandregulationsthatcontrolalmosteveryaspectoftheirdailyaffairs. ` Onnumerousoccasionssince1952CongresshasturnedablindeyeandadeafeartothecontinuinginequalitytowhichUnitedStatescitizensinPuertoRicoaresubjected,andaperusaloftheCongressionalRecorddemonstratesthejealousywithwhichCongresshasguardeditsplenarypowerovertheIsland.:    17      ׀The 0  courtshavesupportedthisview.SeeHarrisv.Rosario,446U.S.  651(1980);Califanov.Torres,389U.S.1(1978). P  ` Thisisnotatotallyunpredictedscenario.Asfarback 0 as1901,inthefirstoftheInsularCases,DeLimav.Bidwell,182 p U.S.at19697,theCourtexpresseditsconcernwiththepossibilitythatCongressmightholdPuertoRicoinlimboindefinitely:8 ` ThetheorythatacountryremainsforeignwithrespecttothetarifflawsuntilCongresshasactedbyembracingitwithintheCustomsunion,...presupposesthatterritorymaybeheldindefinitelybytheUnitedStates;thatitmaybetreatedineveryparticular,exceptfortariffpurposes,asdomesticterritory;thatlawsmaybeenactedandenforcedbyofficersoftheUnitedStatessentthereforthatpurpose;thatinsurrectionsmaybesuppressed,warscarriedon,revenuescollected,taxesimposed;inshort,that H&!+ everythingmaybedonewhichagovernmentcandowithinitsownboundaries,andyetthattheterritorymaystillremainaforeigncountry.Thatthisstateofthingsmaycontinueforyears,foracenturyeven,butthatuntil   Congressenactsotherwise,itstillremainsaforeigncountry.Toholdthatthiscanbedoneasmatteroflawwedeemtobepurejudiciallegislation.WefindnowarrantforitintheConstitutionorinthepowersconferreduponthiscourt....(Emphasisprovided). ` x` x SeealsoDownes,182U.S.at37980(Harlan,J.dissenting). (   ` Thepresentconundrumcannotbejustifiedorperpetuated h  furtherunderthesubterfugeoflabelingita"politicalquestion."Undoubtedly,thissituationis"political"inthesensethatitinvolvesthepoliticalrightsofasubstantialnumberofUnitedStatescitizens.Itisalso"political"becauseitisonethatshould,inthenormalcourseofthings,beresolvedbythepoliticalprocessandthepoliticalbranchesofgovernment.Butinthefinalanalysis,thisproblemisnomore"political"thanthatpresentedtoandresolvedbytheSupremeCourtinBrownv.Boardof 8 Education,347U.S.483(1954),onethatrequiredcorrective x! judicialactioneveninthefaceoflongstandinglegalprecedent.;    18      ׀  X# InBrown,theCourtrecognizedthat,astheultimateinterpreter !% andprotectoroftheConstitution,itmustattimesfillthevacuumcreatedbythefailureorrefusalofthepoliticalbranchestoprotectthecivilrightsofadistinctandpoliticallypowerlessgroupofUnitedStatescitizens.SeealsoUnitedStatesv. '(#- CaroleneProds.Co.,304U.S.144,152n.4(1938)(famously h)$/ suggestingthat"prejudiceagainstdiscreteandinsularminoritiesmaybeaspecialcondition,whichtendsseriouslytocurtailtheoperationofthosepoliticalprocessesordinarilytobereliedupontoprotectminorities,and...maycallforacorrespondinglymoresearchingjudicialinquiry"). ` TheUnitedStatescitizensresidinginPuertoRicoarecaughtinanuntenableCatch22.Thenationaldisenfranchisementofthesecitizensensuresthattheywillneverbeable,throughthepoliticalprocesses,torectifythedenialoftheircivilrightsinthoseverypoliticalprocesses.Thisuninterruptedconditionclearlyprovidessolidbasisforjudicialinterventionatsomepoint,oneforwhichthereisresoundingprecedent.SeeBrownv. 0 BoardofEducation,supra. p @( III.  P  ` Inthis211thyearoftheUnitedStatesConstitution,and102ndyearofUnitedStatespresenceinPuertoRico,UnitedStatescitizenshipmustmeanmorethanmerelythefreedomtotraveltoandfromtheUnitedStates.SeeBalzac,258U.S.at308.This " citizenshipshouldnot,cannot,bedevaluedtosuchalowscale. ` AftermorethanacenturyofUnitedStatespossessionofPuertoRico,therecontinuestobetremendousdebateoverthestatusoftheIslandandthenatureofitsrelationshipwiththeUnitedStates.CertainlythecitizensofPuertoRicoaredividedontheissue,aconditionwhichhaspermittedthefederalgovernmenttoexternalizethisquestion.Whatisestablished,forthetimebeingatleast,isthatthefederalcourtscontinueto ,`'2 recognizethealmostabsolutepowerofCongresstounilaterallydictatetheaffairsofPuertoRicoandherpeople.Solongasthat @ isthecase,thepracticalityofthematteristhatPuertoRicoremainsacolonywithlittleprospectofexertingeffectivepoliticalpressureontheelectedbranchesofgovernmenttotakecorrectiveaction. ` ThecontemporarysocietyofUnitedStatescitizensresidinginPuertoRicohardlydeservescolonialtreatmentbytheUnitedStates,assumingthatsuchtreatmentiseverjustified.PuertoRicoishometoavibrantintellectualandculturalcommunitywhichincludesmanyinstitutionsofhighereducationandotherindiciaofmodernsociety,aswellasasolideconomicfoundationwhichiswhollyintegratedintotheNationalframework.Mostimportantly,itscitizenshavecontributedinfullmeasure,andattimesbeyond,tothedefenseofourCountry.<    19         ` TheperpetuationofthiscolonialconditionrunsagainsttheveryprinciplesuponwhichthisNationwasfounded.Indefinite   colonialrulebytheUnitedStatesisnotsomethingthatwascontemplatedbytheFoundingFathersnorauthorizedpersecula  $ seculorumbytheConstitution.SeeDownes,182U.S.at380 `"& (Harlan,J.,dissenting)("Theideathatthiscountrymayacquireterritoriesanywhereupontheearth,byconquestortreaty,andholdthemasmerecoloniesorprovinces,thepeopleinhabitingthemtoenjoyonlythoserightsasCongresschoosestoaccordtothem,iswhollyinconsistentwiththespiritandgenius,aswellaswiththewords,oftheConstitution.").AndfarfrombeingamatteroflocalconcerntotheUnitedStatescitizensinPuertoRicoonly,theinequalitytowhichthesecitizensaresubjectedisaninjurytoeveryAmerican,becauseassurelyasthecurrentsituationcausesirreparableharmtoUnitedStatescitizensresidinginPuertoRico,itjustaspowerfullydenigratestheentireNationandtheConstitution. ` Althoughthisisnotthecase,norperhapsthetime,forafederalcourttotakeremedialactiontocorrectwhatisapatentlyintolerablesituation,itistimetoservenoticeuponthe  politicalbranchesofgovernmentthatitisincumbentuponthem,inthefirstinstance,totakeappropriatestepstocorrectwhatamountstoanoutrageousdisregardfortherightsofasubstantialsegmentofitscitizenry.Afailuretodosocountenancescorrectivejudicialaction.SeeBrownv.BoardofEducation, `"& supra.Itmaybethatthefederalcourtswillberequiredtotake #@( extraordinarymeasuresasnecessarytoprotectdiscretegroups"completelyunderthesovereigntyanddominionoftheUnitedStates."CherokeeNationv.Georgia,30U.S.1,17(1831) (#. (Marshall,C.J.). ` Myconcurrenceintoday'sdecision,ofcourse,indicates +'2 thatIdonotconsiderthistheappropriatecaseforsuchintervention,largelybecausetheparticularissueofthepresidentialvoteisgovernedbyexplicitlanguageintheConstitutionprovidingfortheelectionofthePresidentandVicePresidentbytheStates,ratherthanbyindividualcitizens.But  @ I,forone,amoftheviewthatmyvotetodayisnotequivalenttoacarteblanche. `  #X*XXX*C#