’WPC¼C  Ź”$õń8!cØvö;<įEōķęž]0B“¾llØWX*Éhr}Ø©Q0>5ŽüŚŃ¦H6™ąR“Å֓Mž«uĀ‚gŠ‘ ?Ā×b³ēĖ &%€c/S;t„ąy:©3nüTœźķ©ógÉšx;O7CÄfŽ’ŃfÅ“p sŽ24Ü'‹§,RŪ{ö_’~G¢šfŪza£"ļš*jå'5·z±]ńé-Ö¾Bp¬‚9¾”Ļ%ā”ķ ĪŖ‘œ¦Šµ·’) ¤’…ė9 ŲŅóZ÷ę”ÓZŖīEŹHŃB\“’IZ¼Ć®źˆh­(•˜æ4֘ “±ø’Ķ’NdxBü›š žO&Té,+°£ECäēłÄĪ5,X߷˵Ķ~l"1Ō““»…XŖõnöŅžłf»JÖĆė 5°{øuhK²äuKŠ_W—”,õŸœWš4+UŌź”ZM)(·†5ŌŠ(«ø– “€Eį)…bҐØAˆCžHot!*Õ÷Ö“leśŠWėŃzNüéØÕśüĆ!C#'’ß&ä[åŠöiŗćłŌį pš=<Č<¤‡y±š‡ Ļ®~m¦€r1W~śZ«0łÓē€qQ-G¾1ņLńOéy‘#SIcī¢(-īÖ:y|q…#ĮF U> %E 0GK U:’ 1‡Ģ Ģ ^ S w_ 4c w † 0cˆ bė 0Dó 7 bEEM mONfU8h 72  1uŅ 72G 0cyyy²ÜYŽĻ燶%= +b"«$$$8&8&8&Ų@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&@&L' 0Nd'ڲ'6Œ-JĀ/ 0 02 5B>6’€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€>€> BCCCCCCCCCCC 0/C˜HP LaserJet 5/5M - StandardČČ,,,,ČČ0<čĄ( 9Z+&Courier RegularX(īķ$””Ō€XmTXXXŌ,°Ą`   "CG Times Bold(нCEKQW]cioAutoList1A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A.hŻ0s Ąv†0‚ ‚ŠHŠ3|x5(;3Ńč$©©Ż ƒīķ!ŻŌ€X.žXXXŌŻ  Ż- ł-(Ć$ņņŚ  Ś*Ś  Śóó Ż ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś6Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌņņŌ_ŌPharmatrakŌ_Ōóó€did€not€resolve€the€issue€because€the€interceptionŠ ° Šthere€was€at€the€point€where€communications€were€being€sent€throughŠ †Ö Ša€wire€to€the€website.€€The€messages€were€not€placed€in€any€type€ofŠ \¬ Šstorage€before€their€interception,€therefore€skirting€theŠ 2‚ Š"contemporaneous"€problem.- ł-’U‹’ĄĄĄ<4šŪ 9Z+‹ Courier New A.3#37=CIQYag­­1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)i)(;3£$““Ō2#ŌŚ  Ś0Ś  Ś.Ō3  Ōą0  ą ØŻ ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś2Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌCount€Two€of€the€Indictment,€which€charged€defendant€withŠ ° Šconspiracy€to€violate€18€U.S.C.€šššš€1030(a)(2)(C)€and€(c)(2)(B),€wasŠ †Ö Šdismissed€at€the€request€of€the€government€after€the€district€courtŠ \¬ Šgranted€defendant's€motion€to€dismiss€Count€One. OŻ ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś10Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌAccording€to€the€Stored€Communications€Act:Š ° ŠĢą8  ąą8` Š Š ąA€Governmental€entity€may€require€theŠ \¬ Šdisclosure€by€a€provider€of€electronicŠ 2‚ Šcommunication€service€of€the€contents€of€anŠ X Šelectronic€communication,€that€is€inŠ Ž. Šelectronic€storage€in€an€electronicŠ “  Šcommunications€system€for€one€hundred€andŠ Š Ś Šeighty€days€or€less,€only€pursuant€to€aŠ ` ° Šwarrant€issued€using€the€procedures€describedŠ 6 †  Šin€the€Federal€rules€of€Criminal€ProcedureŠ  \  Š...€or€equivalent€State€warrant.Šā 2 ` x` x ŠĢ18€U.S.C.€šš€2703(a).€€ņņSee€alsoóó€ņņid.ó󀚚€2703(b)(1)€("A€governmentalŠ ŽŽ  Šentity€may€require€a€provider€of€remote€computing€service€toŠ d“  Šdisclose€the€contents€of€any€[stored€e„mail]€without€requiredŠ :Š  Šnotice€to€the€subscriber€or€customer,€if€the€governmental€entityŠ `  Šobtains€a€warrant€issued€using€the€procedures€described€in€theŠ ę6 ŠFederal€Rules€of€Criminal€Procedure€.€.€.€or€equivalent€StateŠ ¼  Šwarrant€.€.€.€."). ÅŻ ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś12Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_Ō"Electronic€communication"€is€defined€as:Š ° ŠĢą8  ąą8` Š Š ąany€transfer€of€signs,€signals,€writing,Š \¬ Šimages,€sounds,€data,€or€intelligence€of€anyŠ 2‚ Šnature€transmitted€in€whole€or€in€part€by€aŠ X Šwire,€radio,€electromagnetic,€Ō_ŌphotoelectronicŌ_ŌŠ Ž. Šor€Ō_ŌphotoopticalŌ_Ō€system€that€affects€interstateŠ “  Šor€foreign€commerce,€but€does€not€include--ŠŠ Ś` x` x Šą0  ąą0` (#(#ąą8ø ` (#` (#ą(A)€any€wire€or€oral€communication;Š` °ø Š ø Š  Šą0  ąą8` (#(#ąą0ø ` Š ` Š ą(B)€any€communication€made€through€a€tone-onlyŠ 6 †  Špaging€device;Š \ ø Š ø Š  Šą0  ąą8` (#(#ąą0ø ` Š ` Š ą(C)€any€communication€from€a€tracking€deviceŠ ā 2  Š(as€defined€in€section€3117€of€this€title);€orŠø ø Š ø Š  Šą0  ąą8` (#(#ąą0ø ` Š ` Š ą(D)€electronic€funds€transfer€informationŠ ŽŽ  Šstored€by€a€financial€institution€in€aŠ d“  Šcommunications€system€used€for€the€electronicŠ :Š  Šstorage€and€transfer€of€funds.Š#` ø Š ø Š   #Š18€U.S.C.€šš€2510(12). }Ż ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś7Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌIn€fact,€defendant€is€correct€to€make€an€argument,€on€dueŠ ° Šprocess€grounds,€that€he€is€entitled€to€the€benefit€of€anyŠ †Ö Šambiguity€in€the€statute.€€While€we€find€there€is€no€ambiguity€inŠ \¬ ŠCongress's€language,€in€a€criminal€case€we€have€the€constitutionalŠ 2‚ Šobligation€to€define€language€narrowly.€€ņņSeeóó,€ņņe.g.óó,€ņņUnited€StatesóóŠ X Šv.€ņņŌ_ŌColš;šnŌ_Ō„Ortizóó,€866€F.2d€6,€8€(1st€Cir.€1989). Ż ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś1Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌInterloc€also€did€business€under€the€name€Valinet.€€ValinetŠ ° Šfunctioned€as€an€electronic€service€provider€to€the€general€public,Š †Ö Šnot€just€bookdealers,€for€a€monthly€fee€using€the€domain€nameŠ \¬ Š@valinet.com.€€None€of€the€e„mails€at€issue€in€this€case€wereŠ 2‚ Šaddressed€by€its€sender€to€any€addressee€using€the€domainŠ X Š@valinet.com. !Ż ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś4Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌThe€Wiretap€Act€and€Stored€Communications€Act€were€amended€againŠ ° Šby€the€Uniting€and€Strengthening€America€by€Providing€AppropriateŠ †Ö ŠTools€Required€to€Intercept€and€Obstruct€Terrorism€Act€(USA€PATRIOTŠ \¬ ŠAct),€Pub.€L.€No.€107„56,€115€Stat.€272€(Oct.€26,€2001).€€AllŠ 2‚ Šreferences€in€this€opinion€are€to€the€statute€before€it€wasŠ X Šamended. ”Ż ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś3Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌThe€stipulation€signed€by€the€parties€also€included€a€lengthyŠ ° Šdefinition€of€the€term€e„mail.€€In€this€appeal,€we€are€moreŠ †Ö Šconcerned€with€the€mechanism€used€to€send€and€receive€e„mail€andŠ \¬ Štherefore€highlight€those€sections€of€the€stipulation.  ĪŻ ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś5Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌThe€government€refers€to€the€Ō_ŌprocmailŌ_Ō€as€an€e„mail€syphon.http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2821.html(ĶO$——Ō’ŌņņóóŌ’Ō ŠŻ ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś13Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌMy€colleagues€quote€the€maxim:€"[W]hen€Congress€includesŠ ° Šparticular€language€in€one€section€of€a€statute€but€omits€it€inŠ †Ö Šanother€section€of€the€same€Act,€it€is€generally€presumed€thatŠ \¬ ŠCongress€acts€intentionally€and€purposely€in€the€disparateŠ 2‚ Šinclusion€or€exclusion,"€ņņseeóó,€ņņe.g.óó,€ņņIn€re€Hartóó,€328€F.3d€45,€49Š X Š(1st€Cir.€2003).€€This€maxim€is€a€canon€of€construction,€ņņseeóó,€ņņe.g.óó,Š Ž. ŠņņŌ_ŌTrenklerŌ_Ōóó€v.€ņņUnited€Statesóó,€268€F.3d€16,€23€(1st€Cir.€2001)Š “  Š(characterizing€the€maxim€as€a€canon€of€construction).€€ThisŠ Š Ś Šreliance€on€the€canon€to€support€the€inferential€leap€belies€theŠ ` ° Šavailability€of€a€plain€text€argument.€€ņņCf.óó€ņņSpringeróó€v.€ņņGovernmentŠ 6 †  Šof€Philippine€Islandsóó,€277€U.S.€189,€206€(1928)€("The€general€ruleŠ  \  Šthat€the€expression€of€one€thing€is€the€exclusion€of€others€isŠ ā 2  Šsubject€to€exceptions.€Like€other€canons€of€statutory€construction,Š ø  Šit€is€only€an€aid€in€the€ascertainment€of€the€meaning€of€the€law,Š ŽŽ  Šand€must€yield€whenever€a€contrary€intention€on€the€part€of€theŠ d“  Šlawmaker€is€apparent."). ,Ż ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś11Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌAs€noted,€Title€I€of€the€Electronic€Communications€Privacy€ActŠ ° Šamended€the€1968€Wiretap€Act.€€From€this€point€forward,€when€IŠ †Ö Šrefer€to€the€"Wiretap€Act,"€I€mean€the€1968€Wiretap€Act€as€amendedŠ \¬ Šby€Title€I€of€the€Ō_ŌECPAŌ_Ō.€€I€will€refer€to€Title€II€of€the€Ō_ŌECPAŌ_ŌŠ 2‚ Šsimply€as€the€Stored€Communications€Act.http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc821.html öŻ ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś14Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌCouncilman€also€argues€that€the€government€should€be€judiciallyŠ ° ŠŌ_ŌestoppedŌ_Ō€from€asserting€that€he€violated€the€Wiretap€Act€since€itŠ †Ö Šargued€in€favor€of€the€holdings€in€ņņSteve€Jackson€Gamesóó€and€ņņŌ_ŌKonopŌ_Ōóó.€Š \¬ ŠThis€argument€is€misguided.€€In€fact,€the€government€hasŠ 2‚ Šconsistently€argued€that€a€communication€needs€to€be€interceptedŠ X Šcontemporaneously€with€transmission€to€violate€the€Wiretap€Act.€Š Ž. ŠņņSeeóó€ņņŌ_ŌInterGenŌ_Ō€N.V.óó€v.€ņņŌ_ŌGrinaŌ_Ōóó,€344€F.3d€134,€144€(1st€Cir.€2003)Š “  Š("[T]he€doctrine€of€judicial€estoppel€prevents€a€litigant€fromŠ Š Ś Špressing€a€claim€that€is€ņņinconsistentóó€with€a€position€taken€by€thatŠ ` ° Šlitigant€either€in€a€prior€legal€proceeding€or€in€an€earlier€phaseŠ 6 †  Šof€the€same€legal€proceeding.")€(emphasis€Ō_Ōadded).Ō_ŌŌ_ŌŌ_ŌŌ_ŌŌ_Ō (Ż ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś9Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌWebster's€defines€"evanescent"€as€"vanishing;€fading€away;Š ° Šfleeting."€€ņņRandom€House€Webster's€Unabridged€Dictionaryóó€670€(2dŠ †Ö Šed.€1997). 8Ż ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś8Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌPrior€to€the€1986€amendments,€the€Wiretap€Act's€definition€ofŠ ° Š"wire€communication"€read:Š †Ö ŠĢą8  ąą8` Š Š ą"[Ō_ŌW]ireŌ_Ō€communication"€means€any€communicationŠ 2‚ Šmade€in€whole€or€in€part€through€the€use€ofŠ X Šfacilities€for€the€transmission€ofŠ Ž. Šcommunications€by€the€aid€of€wire,€cable,€orŠ “  Šother€like€connection€between€the€point€ofŠ Š Ś Šorigin€and€the€point€of€reception€furnished€orŠ ` ° Šoperated€by€any€person€engaged€as€a€commonŠ 6 †  Šcarrier€in€providing€or€operating€suchŠ  \  Šfacilities€for€the€transmission€of€interstateŠ ā 2  Šor€foreign€communications.Šø ` x` x ŠĢThe€post„Ō_ŌECPAŌ_Ō€version€of€that€definition€read:Š d“  ŠĢą8  ąą8` Š Š ą"[Ō_ŌW]ireŌ_Ō€communication"€means€any€auralŠ `  Štransfer€made€in€whole€or€in€part€through€theŠ ę6 Šuse€of€facilities€for€the€transmission€ofŠ ¼  Šcommunications€by€the€aid€of€wire,€cable,€orŠ ’ā Šother€like€connection€between€the€point€ofŠ hø Šorigin€and€the€point€of€reception€(includingŠ >Ž Šthe€use€of€such€connection€in€a€switchingŠ d Šstation)€furnished€or€operated€by€any€personŠ ź: Šengaged€in€providing€or€operating€suchŠ Ą Šfacilities€for€the€transmission€of€interstateŠ –ę Šor€foreign€communications€or€communicationsŠ l¼ Šaffecting€interstate€or€foreign€commerce€andŠ B’ Šsuch€term€includes€any€electronic€storage€ofŠ h Šsuch€communication.Šī>` x` x ŠĢCongress€deleted€the€phrase€"and€such€term€includes€any€electronicŠ šź Šstorage€of€such€communication"€in€2001. ˆŻ ƒ„[£$ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś15Ś  Śó󀀯  ŻŌ_ŌMy€colleagues€attempt€to€distinguish€the€interception€inŠ ° ŠņņŌ_ŌPharmatrakŌ_Ōóó€from€the€interception€here€by€claiming€that€theŠ †Ö Šcommunications€in€ņņŌ_ŌPharmatrakŌ_Ōóó€"were€not€placed€in€any€type€ofŠ \¬ Šstorage€before€their€interception."€€In€fact,€the€ņņŌ_ŌPharmatrakŌ_ŌóóŠ 2‚ Šdefendant's€Java/Javascript€programs€recorded€the€URLs€that€theŠ X Šusers€visited,€which€means€that€they€copied€the€users'€web€commandsŠ Ž. Šbefore€those€commands€were€sent€over€the€Internet.€€The€webŠ “  Šcommands€were€in€the€same€type€of€temporary,€intermediate,€andŠ Š Ś Šincidental€storage€that€the€e-mails€at€issue€in€this€case€were€inŠ ` ° Šwhen€they€were€intercepted;€therefore,€our€conclusion€that€thereŠ 6 †  Šwas€an€interception€in€ņņŌ_ŌPharmatrakŌ_Ōóó€should€control€our€analysis€here. d(J2[£$¤¤Ż ƒīķ!ŻŌ€X.žXXXŌŻ  ŻÓ  ÓņņŚ  Ś0Ś  Śó󀀯 ƒīķ!ŻŌ€X-rXXXŌŻ  ŻŌ_ŌŌ€XģXXX-rŌŌ€°F>°XXģŌŃ€ŃŃ8€-rXXdÖdČ8ŃŃ  ŃŁ*ƒ!Łą@4 4 ģąUnited€States€Court€of€AppealsˆŠ ° ŠŌ€„E®„°°F>Ōą@   ģąFor€the€First€CircuitˆŠ „Ō ŠĢŌ€„Ó„„„„E®ŌŌ€X-rX„„Ó„ŌßA€y) °°` dE<C ` Aߊ D ” ŠĢĢNo.€03„1383Š ’ O ŠĢą@ģąUNITED€STATES€OF€AMERICA,ˆŠ « ū ŠĢą@””%ģąAppellant,ˆŠ W§  ŠĢą@tt)ģąv.ˆŠ S  ŠĢą@ˆˆģąBRADFORD€C.€COUNCILMAN,ˆŠ Æ’  ŠĢą@<< ģąDefendant,€Appellee.ˆŠ [« ŠĢĢßA€y) °°` d³E<Ü` Aߊ Ż- ŠĢą@œ œ ģąAPPEAL€FROM€THE€UNITED€STATES€DISTRICT€COURTˆŠ Ā ŠĢą@0 0 ģąFOR€THE€DISTRICT€OF€MASSACHUSETTSˆŠ n¾ ŠĢą@` ` ģą[Hon.€Michael€A.€Ponsor,€ņņU.S.€District€Judgeóó]ˆŠ j ŠĢĢßA€y) °°` d³E<›` Aߊ œģ ŠĢą@„„'ģąBeforeˆŠ Ń ŠĢą@ģąTorruella,€ņņCircuit€Judgeóó,ˆŠ -}  Šą@Ō Ō ģąCyr,€ņņSenior€Circuit€Judgeóó,ˆŠ  S! Šą@ģąand€Lipez,€ņņCircuit€Judgeóó.ˆŠ Ł )" ŠĢßA€y) °°` dE<„"` Aߊ …"Õ$ ŠĢÓ  Óą  ąņņGary€S.€Katzmannóó,€Assistant€United€States€Attorney,€with€whomŠ j#ŗ& ŠņņMichael€J.€Sullivanóó,€United€States€Attorney,€and€ņņRichard€P.Š @$' ŠSalgadoóó,€Senior€Counsel,€Computer€Crime€and€Intellectual€PropertyŠ %f ( ŠSection,€were€on€brief,€for€appellant.Š ģ%Ž Šmeans€any€transfer€of€signs,€signals,€writing,€images,€sounds,Š ź: Šdata,€or€intelligence€of€any€nature€transmitted€in€whole€or€in€partŠ –ę Šby€a€wire,€radio,€electromagnetic,€photoelectronic€or€photoopticalŠ B’ Šsystem."€€ņņId.óó€at€šš€2510(12).€€No€mention€is€made€of€electronicŠ ī> Šstorage€of€electronic€communications.€€ņņSee€generallyóó€ņņIn€re€Hartóó,Š šź Š328€F.3d€45,€49€(1st€Cir.€2003)("[W]hen€Congress€includes€aŠ F –! Šparticular€language€in€one€section€of€a€statute€but€omits€it€inŠ ņ!B# Šanother€section€of€the€same€Act,€it€is€generally€presumed€thatŠ ž#ī% ŠCongress€acts€intentionally€and€purposely€in€the€disparateŠ J%š ' Šinclusion€or€exclusion.").Š ö&F") Šą ` ą"Intercept"€is€defined€as€"the€aural€or€other€acquisitionŠ ¢(ņ#+ Šā āof€the€contents€of€any€wire,€electronic,€or€oral€communicationŠ N*ž%- Šthrough€the€use€of€any€electronic,€mechanical,€or€other€device."€Š ° Š18€U.S.C.€šš€2510(4).Š \¬ Šā āą ` ąThe€statute€that€defendant€is€charged€with€conspiring€toŠ X Šviolate,€18€U.S.C.€šš€2511,€provides€criminal€penalties€to€beŠ “  Šimposed€on€"any€person€who„„(a)€intentionally€intercepts,€endeavorsŠ ` ° Što€intercept,€or€procures€any€other€person€to€intercept€or€endeavorŠ  \  Što€intercept,€any€wire,€oral,€or€electronic€communication."€€18Š ø  ŠU.S.C.€šš€2511(1)(a).Š d“  Šą ` ąRelying€on€the€language€of€the€statute€and€the€decisionsŠ `  Šof€our€sister€circuits,€the€district€court€held€that€Congress€didŠ ¼  Šnot€intend€for€the€Wiretap€Act's€interception€provisions€to€applyŠ hø Što€communication€in€electronic€storage.€€ņņCouncilmanóó,€245€F.€Supp.Š d Š2d€at€321.€€The€district€court€rejected€"[t]he€Government'sŠ Ą Šposition€.€.€.€that€the€Wiretap€Act€applies€to€interceptions€thatŠ l¼ Štake€place€when€the€message€.€.€.€is€'in€transit'€or€'in€process€ofŠ h Šdelivery.'"€€ņņId.óó€€Relying€on€the€definition€of€electronic€storage,Š Ä Šthe€district€court€held€that€no€interception€can€occur€while€the€e„Š pĄ  Šmails€are€in€electronic€storage€and€therefore,€without€theŠ !l" Šrequisite€interception,€the€Wiretap€Act€could€not€be€violated.Š Č"$ Šą ` ąThe€scope€of€electronic€communications€that€canŠ t$Ä& Štheoretically€be€intercepted€is€obviously€reduced€when€theŠ  &p!( Šdefinition€does€not€include€electronic€storage€of€suchŠ Ģ'#* Šcommunications,€as€is€the€case€with€wire€communications.€€InŠ x)Č$, Šaddition,€electronic€storage€includes€a€vast€range€of€possibleŠ $+t&. Šsituations€including€"(A)€any€temporary,€intermediate€storage€of€aŠ ° Šwire€or€electronic€communication€incidental€to€the€electronicŠ \¬ Štransmission€thereof€.€.€.€."€€18€U.S.C.€šš€2510(17)(A).€€TheŠ X Šgovernment€argues€that€this€section€does€not€necessarily€place€theŠ “  Še„mails€in€question€in€this€case€outside€the€interceptionŠ ` ° Šrequirement€of€18€U.S.C.€šš€2511(a).Š  \  Šą ` ąThe€particular€problem€confronted€in€this€case€is€whatŠ ø  Šhas€been€called€the€"contemporaneous"€problem€in€the€interceptŠ d“  Šrequirement€of€the€Wiretap€Act.€€ņņSeeóó€ņņIn€re€Pharmatrakóó,€329€F.3d€9,Š `  Š21„22€(1st€Cir.€2003)(because€the€statute€was€written€before€theŠ ¼  Šwidespread€use€of€the€Internet€and€other€media€prior€opinions€mayŠ hø Šnot€be€helpful€in€addressing€current€problems).€€The€governmentŠ d Šargues€that€given€the€particular€nature€of€electronicŠ Ą Šcommunications€and€the€mechanisms€used€to€retrieve€them,€18€U.S.C.Š l¼ Ššš€2511(a)€is€a€proper€foundation€for€Count€One€of€the€Indictment.€Š h ŠIn€addition,€the€government€argues,€cases€from€other€circuits€areŠ Ä Šdistinguishable€on€their€facts€because€none€used€the€procmail€atŠ pĄ  Šissue€in€this€case.׃(ׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś5Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׀€We€have€commented€on€the€issue€presented€inŠ !l" Šthis€case,€ņņseeóó€ņņPharmatrakóó,€329€F.3d€at€21„22,€but€have€not€resolvedŠ Č"$ Šit.׃fׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś6Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׊ t$Ä& Šą ` ąThe€first€case€to€address€the€issue€of€unlawful€interceptŠ ° Šin€the€context€of€electronic€communications€is€ņņSteve€Jackson€Games,Š \¬ ŠInc.óó€v.€ņņUnited€States€Secret€Serviceóó,€36€F.3d€457€(5th€Cir.€1994).€Š X ŠThere,€the€plaintiff€company€sued€the€Secret€Service€because€theŠ “  Šagency€had€seized€a€computer€used€to€operate€a€bulletin€boardŠ ` ° Šsystem,€but€which€also€contained€private,€unretrieved€electronicŠ  \  Šmail.€€ņņId.óó€at€459.€€The€plaintiff€provided€its€customers€with€theŠ ø  Šability€to€send€and€retrieve€e„mail,€which€was€stored€on€theŠ d“  Šcompany's€hard€disk€drive€temporarily,€until€the€recipientŠ `  Šretrieved€the€e„mail.€€ņņId.óó€at€458.€€After€seizing€the€computer,€theŠ ¼  ŠSecret€Service€allegedly€opened€the€private€e„mails,€read€them€andŠ hø Šdeleted€them.€€The€company€sued,€alleging,€ņņinteróó€ņņaliaóó,€a€violationŠ d Šof€the€Wiretap€Act.€€ņņId.óó€at€459„60.Š Ą Šą ` ąThe€Fifth€Circuit€held€that€the€seizure€of€sent€butŠ l¼ Šunretrieved€e„mail€did€not€constitute€an€intercept€for€purposes€ofŠ h Š18€U.S.C.€šš€2511(1)(a).€€ņņSeeóó€ņņSteve€Jackson€Gamesóó,€36€F.3d€at€461„Š Ä Š62.€€In€reaching€that€conclusion,€it€relied€on€the€difference€inŠ pĄ  Šthe€definitions€of€electronic€and€wire€communication€and€theŠ !l" Šdefinition€of€electronic€storage.€€"Congress'€use€of€the€wordŠ Č"$ Š'transfer'€in€the€definition€of€'electronic€communication,'€and€itsŠ t$Ä& Šomission€in€that€definition€of€the€phrase€'any€electronic€storageŠ  &p!( Šof€such€communication'€(part€of€the€definition€of€'wireŠ Ģ'#* Šcommunication')€reflects€that€Congress€did€not€intend€forŠ x)Č$, Š'intercept'€to€apply€to€'electronic€communications'€when€thoseŠ $+t&. Šcommunications€are€in€'electronic€storage.'"€€ņņId.óó€(footnoteŠ ° Šomitted);€ņņsee€alsoóó€ņņFraseróó€v.€ņņNationwide€Mut.€Ins.€Co.óó,€352€F.3dŠ \¬ Š107,€114€(3d€Cir.€2003)€(adopting€the€reasoning€in€ņņSteve€JacksonŠ X ŠGamesóó€as€to€the€meaning€of€intercept€under€the€relevant€version€ofŠ “  Šthe€Wiretap€Act).Š ` ° Šą ` ąIn€contrast,€ņņKonopóó€v.€ņņHawaiian€Airlines,€Inc.óó,€302€F.3dŠ  \  Š868€(9th€Cir.€2002),€ņņcert.€deniedóó,€537€U.S.€1193€(2003),€concernedŠ ø  Ša€plaintiff,€an€employee€of€Hawaiian€Airlines,€who€operated€aŠ d“  Šsecure€website€which€posted€criticism€of€his€employer.€€A€vice„Š `  Špresident€of€the€airline€obtained€permission€from€authorized€usersŠ ¼  Što€view€the€website.€€Plaintiff€sued,€alleging,€ņņinteróó€ņņaliaóó,€thatŠ hø Šdefendant€had€violated€the€Wiretap€Act€by€violating€the€terms€ofŠ d Šuse€of€the€website€and€entering€a€secure€website€under€falseŠ Ą Špretenses.Š l¼ Šą ` ąThe€Ninth€Circuit,€after€granting€panel€rehearing,Š h Šreversed€its€earlier€position€that€the€electronic€communicationsŠ Ä Šwere€covered€under€the€Wiretap€Act.€€It€did€so€because,€in€itsŠ pĄ  Šview,€the€conduct€of€the€defendant€did€not€constitute€an€interceptŠ !l" Šas€that€term€is€defined.€€ņņKonopóó,€302€F.3d€at€876.€€Relying€on€ņņSteveŠ Č"$ ŠJackson€Gamesóó,€it€held€that€"for€a€website€such€as€Konop's€to€beŠ t$Ä& Š'intercepted'€in€violation€of€the€Wiretap€Act,€it€must€be€acquiredŠ  &p!( Šduring€transmission,€not€while€in€electronic€storage."€€ņņId.óó€at€878.€Š Ģ'#* ŠIn€doing€so,€it€rejected€the€position€the€government€takes€in€thisŠ x)Č$, Šcase,€that,€given€the€nature€of€e„mail,€the€Wiretap€Act€must€applyŠ $+t&. Što€en€route€storage.€€ņņId.óó€at€879€n.6.€€"While€this€argument€is€notŠ ° Šwithout€appeal,€the€language€and€structure€of€the€[Act]€demonstrateŠ \¬ Šthat€Congress€considered€and€rejected€this€argument."€€ņņId.óó€€TheŠ X Šcourt€relied,€as€did€the€district€court€in€this€case,€on€theŠ “  Šexpansive€definition€of€the€term€"electronic€storage"€in€18€U.S.C.Š ` ° Ššš€2510(17)(A).€€The€dismissal€of€the€Wiretap€Act€claim€wasŠ  \  Šaffirmed.Š ø  Šą ` ąThe€government€is€correct€that€the€electronicŠ d“  Šcommunications€at€issue€here€were€acquired€in€a€different€mannerŠ `  Šthan€in€ņņSteve€Jackson€Gamesóó€and€ņņKonopóó.€€Defendant's€procmailŠ ¼  Šoperated€to€obtain€the€e„mails€before€they€were€received€by€itsŠ hø Šintended€recipients.€€While€the€e„mail€in€ņņSteve€Jackson€Gamesóó€wasŠ d Šretrieved€from€storage€in€a€computer€and€the€website€in€ņņKonopóó€wasŠ Ą Šaccessed€under€false€pretenses,€the€e„mails€in€this€case€wereŠ l¼ Šaccessed€by€the€procmail€as€they€were€being€transmitted€and€in€realŠ h Štime.€€However,€the€presence€of€the€words€"any€temporary,Š Ä Šintermediate€storage"€in€18€U.S.C.€šš€2510(17)€controls.€€On€theŠ pĄ  Šfacts€of€this€case,€it€is€clear€that€the€electronic€communicationsŠ !l" Šin€this€case€were€in€a€form€of€electronic€storage.€€It€may€well€beŠ Č"$ Šthat€the€protections€of€the€Wiretap€Act€have€been€eviscerated€asŠ t$Ä& Štechnology€advances.€€ņņSeeóó€ņņUnited€Statesóó€v.€ņņSteigeróó,€318€F.3d€1039,Š  &p!( Š1047„51€(11th€Cir.€2003)€(holding€intercept€did€not€occur€becauseŠ Ģ'#* Šthere€was€no€contemporaneous€acquisition€but€commenting€that€underŠ x)Č$, Šthe€narrow€reading€of€the€statute€few€seizures€will€constituteŠ $+t&. Šinterceptions€under€Wiretap€Act).€€As€the€stipulation€reached€byŠ ° Šthe€parties€states,€"[a]t€all€times€that€sendmail€and€procmailŠ \¬ Šperformed€operations€affecting€the€email€messages€at€issue,€theŠ X Šmessages€existed€in€the€random€access€memory€(RAM)€or€in€hardŠ “  Šdisks,€or€both,€within€Interloc's€computer€system."€€When€defendantŠ ` ° Šobtained€the€e„mails,€they€were€in€temporary€storage€in€Interloc'sŠ  \  Šcomputer€systems.€€There€was€also€a€stipulation€that€"[n]eitherŠ ø  Šsendmail€nor€procmail€performed€functions€that€affected€the€emailsŠ d“  Šin€issue€while€the€emails€were€in€transmission€through€wires€orŠ `  Šcables€between€computers."€€This€fact€places€the€messages€outsideŠ ¼  Šthe€scope€of€18€U.S.C.€šš€2511(a),€and€into€temporary€electronicŠ hø Šstorage€under€18€U.S.C.€šš2510€(17)(A).€€ņņAccordóó€ņņSteigeróó,€318€F.3dŠ d Šat€1049;€ņņKonopóó,€302€F.3d€at€878;€ņņSteve€Jackson€Gamesóó,€36€F.3d€atŠ Ą Š462;€ņņsee€alsoóó€ņņUnited€Statesóó€v.€ņņMoriartyóó,€962€F.€Supp.€217€(D.€Mass.Š l¼ Š1997)€(holding€that€for€€Wiretap€Act€provisions€to€be€violated€asŠ h Što€electronic€communications€contemporaneous€acquisition€isŠ Ä Šnecessary);€ņņUnited€Statesóó€v.€ņņReyesóó,€922€F.€Supp.€818,€836€(S.D.N.Y.Š pĄ  Š1996)€(same).Š !l" Šą ` ąThe€government€argues,€and€the€dissent€is€persuaded€byŠ Č"$ Šthis€argument,€that€the€legislative€history€of€the€statuteŠ t$Ä& Šdemonstrates€that€if€an€electronic€communication€is€obtained€whileŠ  &p!( Šit€is€simultaneously€in€transmission€and€in€storage,€then€anŠ Ģ'#* Šintercept€occurs.€€Notwithstanding€the€fact€that€we€find€theŠ x)Č$, Šlanguage€of€the€statute€unambiguous,€exploring€this€contentionŠ $+t&. Šmerely€confirms€our€position€as€to€the€meaning€of€the€statute.€€TheŠ ° Šgovernment€points€to€dicta€in€ņņPharmatrakóó€as€supporting€theŠ \¬ Šconclusion€that€electronic€communications€are€protected€when€theyŠ X Šare€in€storage,€because€by€their€nature,€they€exist€in€storage€andŠ “  Štransit€at€the€same€time.Š ` ° ŠÓÓą8 ` ą[T]he€storage„transit€dichotomy€adopted€byŠ  \  Šearlier€courts€may€be€less€than€apt€to€addressŠ ā 2  Šcurrent€problems.€€As€one€court€recentlyŠ ø  Šobserved,€"[t]echnology€has,€to€some€extent,Š ŽŽ  Šovertaken€language.€€Traveling€the€internet,Š d“  Šelectronic€communications€are€often€„„€perhapsŠ :Š  Šconstantly€„„€both€'in€transit'€and€'inŠ `  Šstorage'€simultaneously,€a€linguistic€but€notŠ ę6 Ša€technological€paradox."м ` x` x ŠĢÓ eÓ329€F.3d€at€21„22€(quoting€ņņCouncilmanóó,€245€F.€Supp.€2d€at€321).€Š hø ŠHowever,€the€legislative€history€of€the€Act€clearly€states€that€theŠ d Šdefinition€of€intercept€was€not€altered€by€the€amendments.€€ņņSeeóó€S.Š Ą ŠRep.€No.€99„541,€at€12,€ņņreprinted€inóó€1986€U.S.C.C.A.N.€at€3566Š l¼ Š(stating€that€"[t]he€definition€of€'intercept'€under€current€law€isŠ h Šretained€with€respect€to€wire€and€oral€communications€except€thatŠ Ä Šthe€term€'or€other'€is€inserted€after€'aural'").€€Even€assumingŠ pĄ  Šņņarguendoóó€that€we€should€look€outside€the€text,€the€government'sŠ !l" Šarguments€based€on€the€legislative€history€are€unavailing.Š Č"$ Šą ` ąThe€Wiretap€Act's€purpose€was,€and€continues€to€be,€toŠ t$Ä& Šprotect€the€privacy€of€communications.€€We€believe€that€theŠ  &p!( Šlanguage€of€the€statute€makes€clear€that€Congress€meant€to€giveŠ Ģ'#* Šlesser€protection€to€electronic€communications€than€wire€and€oralŠ x)Č$, Šcommunications.€€Moreover,€at€this€juncture,€much€of€the€protectionŠ $+t&. Šmay€have€been€eviscerated€by€the€realities€of€modern€technology.€Š ° ŠWe€observe,€as€most€courts€have,€that€the€language€may€be€out€ofŠ \¬ Šstep€with€the€technological€realities€of€computer€crimes.€€However,Š X Šit€is€not€the€province€of€this€court€to€graft€meaning€onto€theŠ “  Šstatute€where€Congress€has€spoken€plainly.׃ׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś7Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׀€We€therefore€affirmŠ ` ° Šthe€district€court's€dismissal€of€Count€One€of€the€Indictment€onŠ  \  Šthe€premise€that€no€intercept€occurred€in€this€case,€and€therefore,Š ø  Šthe€Wiretap€Act€could€not€be€violated.Š d“  Šņ ņB.€€The€Stored€Communications€Actó óŠ `  Šą ` ąDefendant€also€argues€that€his€conduct€was€lawful€underŠ Ų( ŠTitle€II€of€the€ECPA,€or€the€Stored€Communications€Act,€18€U.S.C.Š „Ō Ššš€2701€ņņet€seq.óó,€and€therefore€outside€the€criminal€provisions€ofŠ 0€ Šthe€Wiretap€Act.€€Specifically€he€relies€on€the€providerŠ Ü, Šexceptions,€18€U.S.C.€šš€2701(c)(1).€€Given€our€reading€of€theŠ ˆŲ ŠWiretap€Act,€we€need€not€comment€on€this€argument.€€We€note,Š 4„ Šhowever,€that€the€intersection€of€the€Wiretap€Act€and€the€StoredŠ ą0 ŠCommunications€Act€"is€a€complex,€often€convoluted,€area€of€theŠ ŒÜ  Šlaw."€€ņņUnited€Statesóó€v.€ņņSmithóó,€155€F.3d€1051,€1055€(9th€Cir.€1998).€Š 8!ˆ" ŠDefendant's€argument€takes€us€beyond€the€charges€in€the€Indictment.€Š ä"4$ ŠTherefore,€we€need€not€stray€beyond€the€text€of€the€Wiretap€ActŠ $ą& Šinto€the€Stored€Communications€Act€because€the€government€sought€toŠ ° Šindict€defendant€only€for€conspiracy€to€violate€Title€I,€18€U.S.C.Š \¬ Ššš2511(a).Š X Šą@,,"ģąņ ņIII.€€ņņConclusionó óóóˆŠ “  Šą ` ąFor€the€reasons€stated€above,€the€district€court's€orderŠ | Ģ Šdismissing€Count€One€is€ņņņ ņaffirmedó óóó.Š ( x  ŠĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢĢą@\ \ ģąņ ņ"Dissenting€Opinion€follows"ó óˆŠ  T!¤" Šą ` ąņ ņLIPEZ,€ņņCircuit€Judgeóó€(Dissenting).ó ó€€Unlike€my€colleagues,Š ° ŠI€believe€that€the€district€court€erred€in€dismissing€theŠ xČ Šindictment€against€Defendant„Appellee€Bradford€Councilman€forŠ $t Šviolating€Title€I€of€the€Electronic€Communications€Privacy€ActŠ Š  Š(ECPA),€Pub.€L.€No.€99„508,€100€Stat.€1848€(1986).€€To€explain€myŠ | Ģ Šdisagreement,€I€will€present€some€background€information€on€theŠ ( x  Štechnology€at€issue€and€Congress's€passage€of€the€ECPA.€€ThatŠ Ō$  Šbackground€is€critical€to€an€understanding€of€the€issue€before€us.€Š €Š  ŠI€will€then€set€forth€Councilmanššs€arguments€as€I€understand€themŠ ,|  Šand€explain€why€I€find€them€unpersuasive.€€I€will€then€address€theŠ Ų( Šgovernmentššs€persuasive€arguments.€In€discussing€this€material,€IŠ „Ō Šwill€also€respond€to€the€reasoning€of€the€district€court€and€myŠ 0€ Šcolleagues.Š Ü, Šņ ņą@““!ģąI.€€ņņThe€Technologyóóó óˆŠ ˆŲ Šą ` ąThe€Internet€consists€of€a€network€of€inter„connectedŠ P  Šcomputers€in€which€data€are€broken€down€into€small,€individualŠ üL Špackets€and€forwarded€from€one€computer€to€another€until€they€reachŠ Øų  Štheir€destinations.€€ņņSeeóó€Orin€S.€Kerr,€ņņInternet€Surveillance€LawŠ T!¤" ŠAfter€the€USA€Patriot€Act:€The€Big€Brother€that€Isn'tóó,€97€Nw.U.€L.Š #P$ ŠRev.€607,€613„14€(2003).€€Each€service€on€the€Internet„„e.g.€e„Š ¬$ü& Šmail,€web€hosting,€and€instant€messaging„„has€its€own€protocol€forŠ X&Ø!( Šusing€those€packets€of€data€to€transmit€information€from€one€placeŠ (T#* Što€another.€€I€will€focus€solely€on€the€e„mail€protocol.€€After€aŠ °)%, Šuser€composes€a€message€in€an€e„mail€program,€a€mail€transfer€agentŠ \+¬&. Š("MTA")€formats€that€message€and€sends€it€to€another€program€thatŠ ° Š"packetizes€it"€and€sends€those€packets€out€to€the€Internet.€Š \¬ ŠComputers€on€the€network€then€pass€the€packets€from€one€to€another;Š X Šeach€computer€along€the€route€stores€the€packets€in€memory,Š “  Šretrieves€the€address€of€their€destination,€and€then€determinesŠ ` ° Šwhere€to€send€it€next€based€on€the€packet's€destination.€€AtŠ  \  Švarious€points€the€packets€are€reassembled€to€form€the€original€e„Š ø  Šmail€message,€copied,€and€then€repacketized€for€the€next€leg€of€theŠ d“  Šjourney.€€ņņSeeóó€J.€Klensin,€RFC€2821€-€Simple€Mail€Transfer€Protocol,Š `  Šavailable€at€Ō4‚TŻ Č ŌŻ‚UĶOŻŌ’ŌņņŻ  ŻŌ5  Ōóóhttp://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2821.htmlņņŌ6€ŌŻ‚UĶO€ƒŻóóŌ’ŌŻ  ŻŌ7Ż C€Ō€(last€accessedŠ ¼  ŠMay€19,€2004)€(containing€the€standard€for€the€Simple€MailŠ hø ŠTransport€Protocol).€€These€intermediate€computers€occasionallyŠ d Šretain€backup€copies€of€the€e„mails€that€they€forward€and€thenŠ Ą Šdelete€those€backups€a€short€time€later.€€The€method€ofŠ l¼ Štransmission€is€commonly€called€"store€and€forward"€delivery.Š h Šą ` ąOnce€all€the€packets€reach€the€recipient's€mail€server,Š Ä Šthey€are€reassembled€to€form€the€e„mail€message.€€A€mail€user€agentŠ pĄ  Š("MUA"),€which€in€Councilman's€case€was€a€program€calledŠ !l" Š"Procmail,"€then€determines€which€user€should€receive€the€e„mailŠ Č"$ Šand€places€the€message€in€that€user's€mailbox.€€The€MUA€isŠ t$Ä& Šcontrolled€by€programs€called€"recipe€files."€€These€recipe€filesŠ  &p!( Šcan€be€used€in€a€variety€of€ways€and€can,€for€example,€instruct€theŠ Ģ'#* ŠMUA€to€deposit€mail€addressed€to€one€address€into€another€user'sŠ x)Č$, Šmailbox€(i.e.,€to€send€mail€addressed€to€"help"€to€the€tech€supportŠ $+t&. Šdepartment),€to€reject€mail€from€certain€addresses,€or€to€makeŠ ° Šcopies€of€certain€messages.€€Once€the€messages€are€deposited€in€aŠ \¬ Šmailbox,€the€end€user€simply€needs€to€use€an€e„mail€program€toŠ X Šretrieve€and€read€that€message.€€Councilman€wrote€a€recipe€file€forŠ “  Šhis€MUA€that€caused€all€of€the€messages€from€Amazon.com€to€beŠ ` ° Šcopied€while€the€MUA€was€in€the€process€of€placing€that€messageŠ  \  Šinto€the€recipient's€mailbox,€and€to€place€these€copies€into€hisŠ ø  Šown€personal€box.Š d“  Šą@\ \ ģąņ ņII.€€ņņThe€Legislative€Contextóóó óˆŠ `  Šą ` ąCongress€passed€the€1968€Wiretap€Act€to€"protect[]€theŠ Ų( Šprivacy€of€wire€and€oral€communications,€and€[to]€delineat[e]€on€aŠ „Ō Šuniform€basis€the€circumstances€and€conditions€under€which€theŠ 0€ Šinterception€of€wire€and€oral€communications€may€be€authorized."€Š Ü, ŠņņGelbardóó€v.€ņņUnited€Statesóó,€408€U.S.€41,€48€(1972)€(quoting€S.€Rep.Š ˆŲ ŠNo.€90„1097,€at€66€(1968),€ņņreprinted€inóó€1968€U.S.C.C.A.N.€2153,Š 4„ Š2153).€€By€the€mid„1980s,€however,€technology€had€outpaced€theŠ ą0 Šprivacy€protections€in€the€Act,€creating€uncertainty€and€gaps€inŠ ŒÜ  Šits€coverage.€€As€one€member€of€the€House€Judiciary€CommitteeŠ 8!ˆ" Šlamented:Š ä"4$ ŠÓÓą8 ` ą[I]n€the€almost€20€years€since€Congress€lastŠ $ą& Šaddressed€the€issue€of€privacy€ofŠ f%¶ ' Šcommunications€in€a€comprehensive€fashion,€theŠ <&Œ!( Štechnologies€of€communication€and€interceptionŠ 'b") Šhave€changed€dramatically.€€Today€we€haveŠ č'8#* Šlarge„scale€electronic€mail€operations€.€.€.Š ¾($+ Šand€a€dazzling€array€of€digitized€informationŠ ”)ä$, Šnetworks€which€were€little€more€than€conceptsŠ j*ŗ%- Štwo€decades€ago.€€These€new€modes€ofŠ @+&. Šcommunication€have€outstripped€the€legalŠ ,f'/ Šprotection€provided€under€statutoryŠ ° Šdefinitions€bound€by€old€technologies.ІÖ` x` x ŠĢÓu‹ÓņņElectronic€Communications€Privacy€Act:€Hearings€on€H.R.€3378€BeforeŠ 2‚ Šthe€Subcomm.€on€Courts,€Civil€Liberties,€and€the€Adminstration€ofŠ Ž. ŠJustice€of€the€House€Comm.€on€the€Judiciaryóó,€99th€Cong.€1€(1985„Š Š Ś Š1986)€(statement€of€Chairman€Kastenmeier);€ņņSee€alsoóó€ņņid.óó€at€3Š 6 †  Š("[T]he€American€people€and€American€businesses€are€no€longerŠ ā 2  Šassured€that€the€law€protects€their€right€to€communicateŠ ŽŽ  Šprivately.")€(Statement€of€Sen.€Leahy).€€Congress€passed€the€ECPAŠ :Š  Što€remedy€these€perceived€weaknesses€and€to€update€and€expand€theŠ ę6 Šprivacy€protections€in€the€1968€Act.€€ņņSeeóó€Sen.€Rep.€No.€99-541,€atŠ ’ā Š1€(1986),€ņņreprinted€inóó€1986€U.S.C.C.A.N.€3555,€3555€("The€billŠ >Ž Šamends€the€1968€law€to€update€and€clarify€Federal€privacyŠ ź: Šprotections€and€standards€in€light€of€dramatic€changes€in€newŠ –ę Šcomputer€and€telecommunications€technologies.").Š B’ Šą ` ąTitle€I€of€the€new€act€amended€the€1968€Wiretap€Act€andŠ ī> Šadded€new€protections€for€electronic€and€digital€technologies.€Š šź ŠSection€101(c)(1)(A)€added€"electronic€communications"€to€theŠ F –! Šexisting€prohibitions€against€intercepting€wire„„which€areŠ ņ!B# Šessentially€telephone€calls„„and€oral€communications.€€As€the€HouseŠ ž#ī% Šreport€made€clear,€Congress€intended€to€give€the€term€"electronicŠ J%š ' Šcommunication"€a€broad€definition:€€"As€a€rule,€a€communication€isŠ ö&F") Šan€electronic€communication€if€it€is€neither€carried€by€sound€wavesŠ ¢(ņ#+ Šnor€can€fairly€be€characterized€as€one€containing€the€human€voiceŠ N*ž%- Š(carried€in€part€by€wire)."€€H.R.€Rep.€No.€99„647,€at€35.€€SectionŠ ś+J'/ Š101(a)(3)€added€"or€other"€to€the€definition€of€"intercept,"€whichŠ ° Šhad€previously€only€referred€to€the€"ņņauralóó€acquisition€of€theŠ \¬ Šcontents€of€any€.€.€.€communication."׃\ׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś8Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׀€Also€relevant€to€this€case,Š X Šalbeit€not€at€issue€here,€Section€101(c)(7)€removed€a€phrase€in€theŠ “  ŠWiretap€Act€that€limited€the€scope€of€the€Act€to€communicationsŠ ` ° Štransmitted€on€common€carriers.€€This€amendment€expanded€the€reachŠ  \  Šof€the€Act's€protections€to€private€telephone€and€computerŠ ø  Šnetworks,€including€internal€office€networks,€and€cellular€phones.€Š ° ŠThe€amended€Wiretap€Act€now€reads,€in€pertinent€part:€"[A]ny€personŠ \¬ Šwho€intentionally€intercepts,€endeavors€to€intercept,€or€procuresŠ X Šany€person€to€intercept€or€endeavor€to€intercept,€any€wire,€oral€orŠ “  Šelectronic€communication€.€.€.€shall€be€punished€.€.€.€."€€18Š ` ° ŠU.S.C.€šš€2511(1).Š  \  Šą ` ąCongress€also€recognized€that,€with€the€rise€of€remoteŠ ø  Šcomputing€operations€and€large€databanks€of€stored€electronicŠ d“  Šcommunications,€the€threats€to€individual€privacy€extended€wellŠ `  Šbeyond€the€bounds€of€the€Wiretap€Act's€prohibition€against€theŠ ¼  Š"interception"€of€communications.€€These€stored€communications„„Š hø Šincluding€stored€e„mail€messages,€stored€financial€transactions,Š d Šstored€medical€records,€and€stored€pager€messages„„were€notŠ Ą Šprotected€by€the€Wiretap€Act,€presumably€because€the€Act€had€beenŠ l¼ Šinterpreted€to€only€prohibit€"the€contemporaneous€acquisition€ofŠ h Š[a]€communication."€€ņņSeeóó€ņņUnited€Statesóó€v.€ņņTurkóó,€526€F.2d€654,€658Š Ä Š(5th€Cir.€1976).€€Therefore,€Congress€concluded€that€"theŠ pĄ  Šinformation€[in€these€communications]€may€be€open€to€possibleŠ !l" Šwrongful€use€and€public€disclosure€by€law€enforcement€authoritiesŠ Č"$ Šas€well€as€unauthorized€private€parties."€€Sen.€Rep.€99-541,€at€3Š t$Ä& Š(1986),€ņņreprinted€inóó€1986€U.S.C.C.A.N.€3555,€3557;€ņņsee€alsoóó€UnitedŠ  &p!( ŠStates€Congress,€Office€of€Technology€Assessment,€ņņElectronicŠ Ģ'#* ŠSurveillance€and€Civil€Libertiesóó€48„50€(1985)€(theorizing€thatŠ x)Č$, Šcommunications€service€providers€and€banks€could€disclose€privateŠ $+t&. Šinformation€about€their€customers€without€federal€liability€and€lawŠ ° Šenforcement€agents€could€seize€these€private€communications€withŠ \¬ Šonly€a€modicum€of€procedural€protections).Š X Šą ` ąCongress€added€Title€II€to€the€ECPA€to€halt€theseŠ “  Špotential€intrusions€on€individual€privacy.€€This€title,€which€isŠ ` ° Šcommonly€referred€to€as€the€Stored€Communications€Act,€establishedŠ  \  Šnew€punishments€for€any€person€who€"1)€intentionally€accessesŠ ø  Šwithout€authorization€a€facility€through€which€an€electronicŠ d“  Šcommunication€service€is€provided;€or€2)€intentionally€exceeds€anŠ `  Šauthorization€to€access€that€facility;€and€thereby€obtains,€alters,Š ¼  Šor€prevents€authorized€access€to€a€wire€or€electronic€communicationŠ hø Šwhile€it€is€in€electronic€storage€.€.€.€."€€18€U.S.C.€šš€2701(a).Š d Šą ` ąThe€privacy€protections€established€by€the€StoredŠ Ą ŠCommunications€Act€were€intended€to€apply€to€two€categories€ofŠ l¼ Šcommunications:€"those€associated€with€transmission€and€incidentŠ h Šthereto"€and€those€of€"a€back„up€variety."€€ņņóóH.R.€Rep.€No.€99„647,Š Ä Šat€68.€€The€first€category€refers€to€temporary€storage€such€as€whenŠ pĄ  Ša€message€sits€in€an€e„mail€user's€mailbox€after€transmission€butŠ !l" Šprior€to€the€user€retrieving€the€message€from€the€mail€server.€Š Č"$ ŠImportantly,€however,€this€category€does€not€include€messages€thatŠ t$Ä& Šare€still€in€transmission,€which€remain€covered€by€the€Wiretap€Act.€Š  &p!( ŠņņId.óó€at€65€(stating€that€ņņthe€Wiretap€Actóó€"prohibits€.€.€.€a€providerŠ Ģ'#* Šfrom€divulging€the€contents€of€a€communication€while€it€is€inŠ x)Č$, Štransmission.").€€The€second€category€includes€communications€thatŠ $+t&. Šare€retained€on€a€server€for€administrative€and€billing€purposes.€Š ° ŠCommunications€service€providers€could€use€stored€messages€in€thisŠ \¬ Šcategory€to€restore€a€user's€data€in€the€event€of€a€system€crash€orŠ X Što€recover€accidentally„deleted€messages.Š “  Šą ` ąDefendant„Appellee€Bradford€Councilman€was€indicted€onŠ ` ° ŠJuly€11,€2001€for€violating€Title€I€of€the€ECPA,€the€Wiretap€Act,Š  \  Šbut€was€not€charged€with€violating€Title€II,€the€StoredŠ ø  ŠCommunications€Act.€€Determining€the€legality€of€this€indictmentŠ d“  Šrequires€us€to€explore€the€dividing€line€between€these€two€titles.€Š `  ŠCouncilman€claims€that€the€e„mails€at€issue€were€storedŠ ¼  Šcommunications€when€they€were€being€processed€for€delivery€in€hisŠ hø Šcompany's€computers,€and,€therefore,€they€were€not€the€type€ofŠ d Š"evanescent"€transmissions,€i.e.,€telephone€calls€traveling€throughŠ Ą Ša€wire,€that€the€Wiretap€Act€addresses.׃[ׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś9Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׀€Under€his€approach,€an€e„Š l¼ Šmail€would€only€be€subject€to€the€Wiretap€Act€when€it€is€travelingŠ h Šthrough€cables€and€not€when€it€is€being€processed€by€electronicŠ Ä Šswitches€and€computers€during€transit€and€delivery.€€According€toŠ pĄ  ŠCouncilman:Š !l" ŠÓÓą8 ` ąThe€reason€that€the€stored€v.€evanescentŠ Č"$ Šdistinction€is€a€key€determinant€of€the€extentŠ ž#ī% Šof€privacy€protection€afforded€by€the€ECPA€toŠ t$Ä& Šboth€wire€and€electronic€communications€isŠ J%š ' Šsimply€that,€because€of€their€lasting€nature,Š  &p!( Šstored€communications€are€inherently€moreŠ ö&F") Švulnerable€to€intrusion€than€evanescentŠ Ģ'#* Šcommunications,€which€must€be€intruded€uponŠ ° Šsimultaneously€with€the€communication,€or€notŠ †Ö Šat€all.Š\¬` x` x ŠĢÓÓ®Óą ` ąThe€government€focuses€on€the€temporal€nature€ofŠ X ŠCouncilman's€actions€and€argues€that€he€violated€the€Wiretap€ActŠ “  Šbecause€he€copied€the€e„mails€"contemporaneously€with€theirŠ ` ° Štransmission."€€In€other€words,€he€copied€them€in€real€time€whileŠ  \  Šthey€were€in€the€process€of€being€delivered.€€Under€its€view,€anŠ ø  Šintercept€is€subject€to€the€Wiretap€Act€between€the€time€that€theŠ d“  Šauthor€presses€the€"send"€button€and€the€time€that€the€messageŠ `  Šarrives€in€the€recipient's€e„mail€box.€€Accordingly,€the€WiretapŠ ¼  ŠAct€would€apply€to€messages€that€are€intercepted€contemporaneouslyŠ hø Šwith€their€transmission€and€the€Stored€Communications€Act€wouldŠ d Šapply€to€messages€that€are€accessed€non„contemporaneously€withŠ Ą Štransmission.Š l¼ Šą ` ąAs€I€discuss€in€greater€detail€in€Section€V,€ņņinfraóó,€theŠ h Šline€that€we€draw€in€this€case€will€have€far„reaching€effects€onŠ Ä Špersonal€privacy€and€security.€€Congress€concluded€that€storedŠ pĄ  Šcommunications,€while€requiring€protection,€require€fewer€privacyŠ !l" Šprotections€than€those€in€transit.€€Therefore,€the€Wiretap€ActŠ Č"$ Šincludes€significant€procedural€protections€which€go€beyond€theŠ t$Ä& Šrequirements€of€the€Fourth€Amendment€itself€and€which€are€notŠ  &p!( Šapplicable€to€the€Stored€Communications€Act.€€First,€officers€mayŠ Ģ'#* Šonly€obtain€wiretap€orders€for€investigations€involving€federalŠ x)Č$, Šfelonies.€€ņņSeeóó€18€U.S.C.€šš€2516(3).€€Second,€in€addition€toŠ $+t&. Šdemonstrating€that€they€have€probable€cause,€the€officers€mustŠ ° Šprovide€specific€information€regarding,€ņņinteróó€ņņaliaóó,€the€types€ofŠ \¬ Šcommunications€that€would€likely€be€intercepted,€the€individualsŠ X Šwhose€conversations€would€be€intercepted,€the€steps€that€the€agentsŠ “  Štook€to€avoid€having€to€rely€on€a€wiretap,€and€the€steps€that€theyŠ ` ° Šwould€take€to€avoid€intercepting€more€information€than€isŠ  \  Šnecessary.€€18€U.S.C.€šššš€2518(1)„(4).€€Third,€unless€the€courtŠ ø  Šgrants€a€special€extension,€the€wiretap€may€only€last€for€theŠ d“  Šshorter€of€thirty€days€or€as€long€as€is€necessary€to€obtain€theŠ `  Šnecessary€evidence.€€ņņId.ó󀚚€2518(5).€€Fourth,€the€court€may€requireŠ ¼  Šthe€Government€to€produce€regular€reports€on€the€progress€of€itsŠ hø Šwiretaps€and€to€keep€the€tapes€and€transcripts€€of€those€wiretapsŠ d Šunder€seal.€€ņņId.ó󀚚šš€2518(6)€&€8(a).€€Fifth,€the€court€must€notifyŠ Ą Šthe€target€of€the€wiretap€application„„within€a€reasonable€time„„Š l¼ Šthat€their€communications€may€have€been€intercepted.€€ņņId.ó󀚚2518Š h Š(8)(d).€€Finally,€if€the€officers€violate€any€portion€of€theseŠ Ä Šrules,€the€evidence€obtained€through€the€wiretap€is€automaticallyŠ pĄ  Šsuppressed,€even€if€the€Government's€actions€did€not€violate€theŠ !l" ŠFourth€Amendment.€€ņņId.ó󀚚€2515.Š Č"$ Šą ` ąThe€Stored€Communications€Act€does€not€contain€any€of€theŠ t$Ä& ŠWiretap€Act's€special€protections.€€A€federal€law€enforcement€agentŠ  &p!( Šā ācould€obtain€access€to€such€communications€simply€by€obtaining€aŠ Ģ'#* Šwarrant.€€18€U.S.C.€šš€2703(a).׃ׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś10Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׀€The€target€of€the€investigationŠ ° Šā ādoes€not€need€to€be€informed€that€the€government€accessed€his€orŠ \¬ Šher€communications,€€ņņid.óó€at€šš€2703(b)(1)(A),€and€a€defendant€doesŠ X Šnot€have€the€right,€outside€of€the€Fourth€Amendment,€to€seek€toŠ “  Šsuppress€communications€that€were€obtained€in€violation€of€theŠ ` ° ŠStored€Communications€Act.Š  \  Šą ` ąIt€is€also€easier€for€private€actors€to€access€privateŠ ø  Šmessages€under€the€Stored€Communications€Act.€€Section€2702(a)Š d“  Šexempts,€ņņinteróó€ņņaliaóó,€"conduct€authorized€by€the€person€or€entityŠ `  Šproviding€a€wire€or€electronic€communications€service"€from€theŠ ¼  Šprohibition€against€unauthorized€access.€€Thus,€a€private€actorŠ hø Šlike€Councilman€may€open€a€user's€files€and€may€read€the€e„mailsŠ d Šthat€are€stored€in€that€user's€mailbox.€€ņņBut€seeóó€18€U.S.C.€šš€2702Š Ą Š(stating€that€service€providers€may€not,€with€certain€objections,Š ° Šdisclose€stored€communications€that€they€access).€€The€Wiretap€ActŠ \¬ Šdoes€not€include€any€such€broad€exemption.׃Wׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś11Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׊ X Šą@\ \ ģąņ ņIII.€€ņņCouncilman's€ArgumentsóóˆŠ “  ŠA.€€The€Plain€Textó óŠ | Ģ Šą ` ąCouncilman's€primary€argument,€which€was€dispositive€withŠ D ”  Šthe€district€court€and€now€with€my€colleagues,€is€that€the€plainŠ š@  Štext€of€the€ECPA€exempts€electronic€communications€that€are€inŠ œģ  Šstorage€from€the€purview€of€the€Wiretap€Act.€€In€brief,€he€arguesŠ H˜  Šthat€Congress€included€the€term€"electronic€storage"€in€the€ECPA'sŠ ōD Šdefinition€of€"wire€communication"€but€failed€to€do€so€in€theŠ  š Šdefinition€of€"electronic€communication."׃¾ׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś12Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׀€That€omission,Š Lœ Šaccording€to€Councilman,€indicates€that€Congress€intended€toŠ ° Šexclude€communications€that€are€in€storage€from€the€definition€ofŠ \¬ Š"electronic€communication"€and,€hence,€from€the€scope€of€theŠ X ŠWiretap€Act.€€Moreover,€Congress€defined€the€term€"electronicŠ “  Šstorage"€expansively€to€include€"any€temporary,€intermediateŠ ` ° Šstorage€of€a€wire€or€electronic€communication€incidental€to€theŠ  \  Šelectronic€transmission€thereof."€€18€U.S.C.€šš€2510(17).€€ņņSeeóóŠ ø  ŠņņUnited€Statesóó€v.€ņņCouncilmanóó,€245€F.€Supp.€2d.€319,€320€(D.€Mass.Š d“  Š2003)€(describing€this€definition€as€"extraordinarily„„indeed,Š `  Šalmost€breathtakingly€broad").€€Since€the€parties€stipulated€thatŠ ¼  Šthe€e„mails€in€this€case€were€"in€the€random€access€memory€(RAM)€orŠ hø Šin€the€hard€disks,€or€both,€within€[Councilman's€company's]Š d Šcomputer€system"€at€the€time€of€the€interception,€those€e„mailsŠ Ą Šfall€under€the€statutory€definition€of€"in€storage."Š l¼ Šą ` ąAs€so€often€happens€under€close€scrutiny,€the€plain€textŠ h Šis€not€so€plain.€€There€is€no€explicit€statement€from€Congress€thatŠ Ä Šit€intended€to€exclude€communications€that€are€in€storage€from€theŠ pĄ  Šdefinition€of€"electronic€communication,"€and,€hence,€from,€theŠ !l" Šscope€of€the€Wiretap€Act.€€Councilman,€without€acknowledging€it,Š Č"$ Šlooks€beyond€the€face€of€the€statute€and€makes€a€non„textual,Š t$Ä& Šinferential€leap.€€He€infers€that€Congress€intended€to€exclude€allŠ  &p!( Šcommunications€that€are€in€storage€from€the€definition€ofŠ Ģ'#* Š"electronic€communication,"€regardless€of€whether€they€are€in€theŠ x)Č$, Šprocess€of€being€delivered,€simply€because€it€did€not€include€theŠ ° Šterm€"electronic€storage"€in€that€definition.€€This€inferentialŠ \¬ Šleap€is€not€a€plain€text€reading€of€the€statute.׃Vׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś13Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׊ X Šą ` ąAs€I€discuss€in€greater€detail€in€Section€IV,€thisŠ “  Šinferential€leap€ignores€the€rationale€behind€Congress's€inclusionŠ ` ° Šof€electronic€storage€in€the€definition€of€"wire€communication."€Š  \  ŠRecognizing€that€telephone€calls€would€no€longer€be€protected€byŠ ø  Šthe€Wiretap€Act€after€they€were€stored€in€voicemail,€CongressŠ d“  Šwanted€to€expand€the€scope€of€the€Wiretap€Act€to€embrace€theseŠ `  Šstored€communications.€€Although€this€decision€might€indicate€thatŠ ¼  ŠCongress€did€not€intend€to€use€the€Wiretap€Act€to€protect€e„mailsŠ hø Šafter€they€have€been€delivered,€it€says€nothing€about€CongressionalŠ d Šintent€regarding€e„mails€that€are€still€in€transmission.€Š Ą ŠFurthermore,€my€colleagues€use€that€maxim€to€impute€meaning€to€theŠ l¼ Šstatute€that€the€legislative€history€does€not€support.€€CongressŠ h Šincluded€electronic€storage€in€its€definition€of€wireŠ ° Šcommunications€because€it€wanted€voicemails€to€be€protected€underŠ \¬ Šthe€Wiretap€Act€after€those€messages€were€delivered.€€We€should€notŠ X Šmisconstrue€this€easily€understood€inclusion€of€post„deliveryŠ “  Švoicemail€storage€as€indicating€an€unstated€intention€to€excludeŠ ` ° Šemails€in€transmission€from€the€scope€of€the€Wiretap€Act.€€ņņSeeóó€ņņClayóóŠ  \  Šv.€ņņUnited€Statesóó,€537€U.S.€522,€523€(2003)€(rejecting€the€notionŠ ø  Šthat€Congress's€failure€to€use€a€particular€term€in€a€definitionŠ d“  Šmust€have€been€deliberate€when€"one€can€readily€comprehend€whyŠ `  ŠCongress€might€have€found€it€appropriate€to€spell€out€the€meaningŠ ¼  Šof€"final"€in€[one€section]€but€not€in€[another]").Š hø Šą ` ąMoreover,€Councilman€ignores€an€important€rule€ofŠ d Šstatutory€interpretation:€"Where€Congress€explicitly€enumeratesŠ Ą Šcertain€exceptions€to€a€general€prohibition,€additional€exceptionsŠ l¼ Šare€not€to€be€implied,€in€the€absence€of€evidence€of€a€contraryŠ h Šlegislative€intent."€€ņņAndrusóó€v.€ņņGlover€Constr.€Co.óó,€446€U.S.€608,Š Ä Š616-17€(1980).€€From€the€prohibition€that,€"No€person€shallŠ pĄ  Šintentionally€intercept€an€electronic€communication,"€CongressŠ !l" Šspecifically€excluded€four€categories€of€communications:€1)€wireŠ Č"$ Šand€oral€communications;€2)€communications€made€through€tone-onlyŠ t$Ä& Špaging€devices;€3)€communications€from€tracking€devices;€4)Š  &p!( Šelectronic€funds€transfer€information€stored€by€a€financialŠ Ģ'#* Šinstitution.€€18€U.S.C.€šš€2510(12).€€Councilman's€approach€wouldŠ x)Č$, Šengraft€an€additional€exclusion€onto€this€list:€€"any€communicationŠ $+t&. Šin€electronic€storage."€€A€commonsensical€reading€of€the€statuteŠ ° Šand€a€respect€for€our€precedents€preclude€the€implication€of€suchŠ \¬ Šan€exclusion€without€additional€support€in€the€legislative€record.€Š X ŠņņSee€alsoóó€ņņAmerican€Tobacco€Co.óó€v.€ņņPattersonóó,€456€U.S.€63,€71€(1982)Š “  Š("Statutes€should€be€interpreted€to€avoid€untenable€distinctionsŠ ` ° Šand€unreasonable€results€whenever€possible.").Š  \  Šą ` ąIn€short,€the€plain€text€of€the€ECPA€does€not€clearlyŠ ø  Šaddress€the€issue€of€whether€a€communication€is€still€considered€anŠ d“  Šelectronic€communication€when€it€is€in€electronic€storage€duringŠ `  Štransmission.€€Given€this€ambiguity,€I€turn€to€Councilman'sŠ ¼  Šarguments€regarding€Congressional€intent€and€legislative€history.Š hø Šņ ņB.€€Congressional€Intent€and€Legislative€Historyó óŠ d Šą ` ąWithout€yielding€on€his€plain€meaning€arguments,Š Ü, ŠCouncilman€claims€that€Congress€intended€to€accord€greaterŠ ˆŲ Šprotection€to€wire€communications€than€to€electronicŠ 4„ Šcommunications.€€Noting€that€šš€2510(1)€expanded€the€Wiretap€Act'sŠ ą0 Šcoverage€to€stored€voicemails,€he€sees€that€provision€as€indicativeŠ ŒÜ  Šof€a€Congressional€intent€to€provide€a€lower€degree€of€protectionŠ 8!ˆ" Što€e„mails€that€are€stored€while€they€are€being€delivered.€€WithoutŠ ä"4$ Šciting€any€relevant€evidence€in€the€ņņCongressionalóó€ņņRecordóó,Š $ą& ŠCouncilman€theorizes€that€Congress€decided€to€provide€greaterŠ <&Œ!( Šprotections€to€wire€communications€because€participants€inŠ č'8#* Štelephone€calls€may€have€a€greater€expectation€of€privacy€thanŠ ”)ä$, Šparticipants€in€e„mail€exchanges.€€As€he€puts€it:€"In€Congress'Š @+&. Šview,€a€lesser,€non„constitutional€degree€of€expectation€of€privacyŠ ° Šcan€or€should€attach€to€forms€of€communication€that€are€notŠ \¬ Ševanescent,€but€rather€are€inherently€subject€to€being€stored€byŠ X Šnon„parties€to€the€communication."Š “  Šą ` ąThe€legislative€history€does€not€support€this€assertion.€Š ` ° ŠTo€the€contrary,€the€legislative€history€demonstrates€that€CongressŠ  \  Šwas€deeply€concerned€about€the€emerging€threats€to€privacy€and€theŠ ø  Šfailure€of€existing€legal€protections€to€cope€with€those€threats.€Š d“  ŠņņSeeóó€ņņIn€re€Pharmatrakóó,€329€F.3d€9,€18€(1st€Cir.€2003)€("TheŠ `  Šparamount€objective€of€the€Wiretap€Act€is€to€protect€effectivelyŠ ¼  Šthe€privacy€of€communications.").€€Councilmanššs€approach,€whichŠ hø Šwould€apply€the€Stored€Communications€Act€to€e„mails€duringŠ d Šdelivery,€is€undermined„„not€supported„„by€legislative€historyŠ Ą Šdemonstrating€that€the€purpose€of€the€ECPA€was€to€provide€greaterŠ l¼ Šprotections€to€electronic€communications€under€the€Wiretap€Act.Š h Šą ` ąCongress€requested€a€report€from€the€Office€of€TechnologyŠ Ä ŠAssessment€(OTA)€shortly€before€undertaking€its€consideration€ofŠ pĄ  Šthe€Wiretap€Act€in€1983.€€The€report,€ņņElectronic€Surveillance€andŠ !l" ŠCivil€Libertiesóó,€used€stark€language€to€describe€the€existingŠ Č"$ Šprivacy€protections:Š t$Ä& ŠÓÓą8 ` ąIn€the€last€20€years,€there€has€been€a€virtualŠ  &p!( Šrevolution€in€the€technology€relevant€toŠ ö&F") Šelectronic€surveillance.€€Advances€inŠ Ģ'#* Šelectronics,€semiconductors,€computers,Š ¢(ņ#+ Šimaging,€databases€and€related€technologiesŠ x)Č$, Šhave€greatly€increased€the€technical€optionsŠ N*ž%- Šfor€surveillance€activities€.€.€.€The€existingŠ $+t&. Šstatutory€framework€and€jurisdictionalŠ ś+J'/ Šinterpretations€thereof€do€not€adequatelyŠ ° Šcover€new€electronic€surveillanceŠ †Ö Šapplications.Š\¬` x` x ŠĢÓ ģÓThe€report€then€identified€threats€associated€with€five€differentŠ X Štypes€of€surveillance„„telephone,€e„mail,€electronic€physical,Š “  Šelectronic€visual,€and€database„„and€suggested€statutory€reforms€toŠ ` ° Šprotect€individual€privacy€from€those€threats.€€This€report€wasŠ  \  Šimportant€in€shaping€the€ECPA.€€Congress€repeatedly€cited€it€duringŠ ø  Šits€deliberations.Š d“  Šą ` ąThe€stated€purpose€of€the€ECPA€was€to€"protect€againstŠ `  Šthe€unauthorized€interception€of€electronic€communications"€and€toŠ ¼  Š"update€and€clarify€Federal€privacy€protections€and€standards€inŠ hø Šlight€of€dramatic€changes€in€new€computer€and€telecommunicationsŠ d Štechnologies."€€S.€Rep.€No.€99-541,€at€1€(1986),€ņņreprinted€inóó€1986Š Ą ŠU.S.C.C.A.N.€3555,€3555.€€Congress€repeatedly€stressed€the€need€forŠ l¼ Šnew€protections€for€both€telephone€and€electronic€communications.€Š h ŠņņSeeóó,€ņņe.g.óó,€ņņid.óó€at€5,€ņņreprinted€inóó€1986€U.S.C.A.A.N.€3555,€3559Š Ä Š("[T]here€are€no€comparable€Federal€statutory€standards€to€protectŠ pĄ  Šthe€privacy€and€security€of€communications€transmitted€by€.€.€.€newŠ !l" Šforms€of€telecommunications€and€computer€technology.");€ņņId.óó€at€4Š Č"$ Š(observing€that€existing€protections€for€e„mail€were€"'weak,Š t$Ä& Šambiguous,€or€non„existent'€and€that€'electronic€mail€remainsŠ  &p!( Šlegally€as€well€as€technically€vulnerable€to€unauthorizedŠ Ģ'#* Šsurveillance.'")€(quoting€Office€of€Technology€Assessment,Š x)Č$, ŠņņElectronic€Surveillance€and€Civil€Libertiesóó€45€(1985));€ņņId.óó€at€3Š $+t&. Š("Electronic€hardware€making€it€possible€for€overzealous€lawŠ ° Šenforcement€agencies,€industrial€spies€and€private€parties€toŠ \¬ Šintercept€the€personal€or€proprietary€communications€of€others€areŠ X Šreadily€available€in€the€American€market€today.");€H.R.€Rep.€No.Š “  Š99„647,€at€34€(1986)€(characterizing€electronic€mail€as€"one€of€theŠ ` ° Šmost€popular€new€computer€services"€and€stating€that€through€theŠ  \  Šprotections€in€the€ECPA€"electronic€mail€will€be€provided€withŠ ø  Šprotection€against€interception").Š d“  Šą ` ąIndeed,€while€the€legislative€history€includes€a€fewŠ `  Šstatements€regarding€the€balance€between€law€enforcement€andŠ ¼  Šindividual€liberty,€the€perceived€need€to€protect€privacy€was€ņņtheóóŠ hø Šoverarching€motivation€for€the€bill.€€According€to€the€SenateŠ d ŠReport:Š Ą ŠÓÓą8 ` ą[T]he€law€must€advance€with€the€technology€toŠ l¼ Šensure€the€continued€vitality€of€the€fourthŠ B’ Šamendment.€Privacy€cannot€be€left€to€dependŠ h Šsolely€on€physical€protection,€or€it€willŠ ī> Šgradually€erode€as€technology€advances.Š Ä ŠCongress€must€act€to€protect€the€privacy€ofŠ šź Šour€citizens.€If€we€do€not,€we€will€promoteŠ pĄ  Šthe€gradual€erosion€of€this€precious€right.ŠF –!` x` x ŠĢÓśÓS.€Rep.€No.€99-541,€at€5€(1986),€ņņreprinted€inóó€1986€U.S.C.C.A.N.Š ņ!B# Š3555,€3559€(1986).€€Congress€did€not€express€any€desire€to€accordŠ ž#ī% Šless€protection€to€electronic€communications.€€In€fact,€one€of€theŠ J%š ' Šauthors€of€the€ECPA€said€that€the€legislation€constitutedŠ ö&F") ŠÓÓą8 ` ąa€recognition€that€what€is€being€protected€isŠ ¢(ņ#+ Šthe€sanctity€and€privacy€of€the€communication.Š x)Č$, ŠWe€should€not€attempt€to€discriminate€for€orŠ N*ž%- Šagainst€certain€methods€of€communication,Š $+t&. Šunless€there€is€a€compelling€case€that€allŠ ś+J'/ Šparties€to€the€communication€want€the€messageŠ ° Šaccessible€to€the€public.ІÖ` x` x ŠĢÓ«żÓ132€Cong.€Rec.€H4039€(Statement€of€Rep.€Kastenmeier).Š 2‚ Šą ` ąOddly,€Councilman€relies€on€legislative€history€thatŠ Ž. Šactually€undercuts€his€position€when€he€quotes€from€the€SenateŠ Š Ś ŠReport:Š 6 †  ŠÓÓą8 ` ąNevertheless,€because€[copies€of€e„mailsŠ ā 2  Šretained€on€mail€servers€are]€subject€toŠ ø  Šcontrol€by€a€third€party€computer€operator,Š ŽŽ  Šthe€information€may€be€subject€to€noŠ d“  Šconstitutional€privacy€protection.€€Thus,€theŠ :Š  Šinformation€may€be€open€to€possible€wrongfulŠ `  Šuse€and€disclosure€by€law€enforcementŠ ę6 Šauthorities€as€well€as€unauthorized€privateŠ ¼  Šparties.€€The€provider€of€these€services€canŠ ’ā Šdo€little€under€the€current€law€to€resistŠ hø Šunauthorized€access€to€communications.Š>Ž` x` x ŠĢÓ«ÓS.€Rep.€No.€99-541,€at€3€(1986),€ņņreprinted€inóó€1986€U.S.C.C.A.N.Š ź: Š3555,€3557€(1986).€€Rather€than€reflecting€Congressššs€comfort€withŠ –ę Šless€privacy€protection€for€electronic€communications,€the€SenateŠ B’ Šreport€cited€the€lack€of€constitutional€protection€as€aŠ ī> Šjustification€for€creating€greater,€not€lesser,€statutoryŠ šź Šprotections€for€e„mails.€€There€is€no€support€in€the€legislativeŠ F –! Šrecord€for€the€proposition€that€Congress€intended€to€apply€theŠ ņ!B# ŠStored€Communications€Act€to€e„mails€that€are€stored€duringŠ ž#ī% Štransmission.Š J%š ' Šņ ņC.€€Other€Precedentsó óŠ ö&F") Šą ` ąCouncilman's€effort€to€support€his€plain€text€argumentŠ ¾($+ Šwith€references€to€precedents€outside€of€this€circuit€is€alsoŠ j*ŗ%- Šunavailing.€€First,€he€cites€ņņSteve€Jackson€Games,€Inc.óó€v.€ņņUnitedŠ ,f'/ ŠStates€Secret€Serviceóó,€36€F.3d€457€(5th€Cir.€1994)€in€which€theŠ ° ŠFifth€Circuit€considered€a€complaint€against€federal€officers€forŠ \¬ Šseizing€a€computer€bulletin€board€system€(BBS)€that€containedŠ X Šunread€e„mails.€€The€court€rejected€the€plaintiffs'€claim€that€thisŠ “  Šseizure€constituted€a€violation€of€the€Wiretap€Act,€holding€thatŠ ` ° Šthe€plain€language€of€the€statute„„specifically,€the€omission€ofŠ  \  Šthe€term€"electronic€storage"€from€the€definition€of€"electronicŠ ø  Šcommunication"„„"reflects€that€Congress€did€not€intend€forŠ d“  Š'intercept'€to€apply€to€'electronic€communications'€when€thoseŠ `  Šcommunications€are€in€'electronic€storage.'"€€Since€the€messagesŠ ¼  Šwere€being€stored€on€the€seized€server,€the€Wiretap€Act€did€notŠ hø Šapply.€€ņņId.óó€at€462.Š d Šą ` ąCouncilman€fails€to€account€for€the€context€of€this€case.€Š Ą ŠThe€ņņSteve€Jacksonóó€court€was€faced€with€the€question€of€whether€aŠ l¼ Šnon„contemporaneous€communication€could€be€"intercepted"€under€theŠ h ŠWiretap€Act;€it€answered€that€question€in€the€negative.€€ThatŠ Ä Šholding€is€fully€in€line€with€the€Government's€position€in€thisŠ pĄ  Šcase.€€In€fact,€the€court€went€out€of€its€way€to€note€thatŠ !l" Š"intercept"€was€defined€as€contemporaneous€in€the€context€of€anŠ Č"$ Šaural€communication€under€the€old€Wiretap€Act,€and€that€CongressŠ t$Ä& Šretained€this€definition€when€it€passed€the€ECPA.€€ņņSteve€JacksonŠ  &p!( ŠGamesóó,€36€F.3d€at€461.€ņņSee€alsoóó€ņņFraseróó€v.€ņņNationwide€Mut.€Ins.€Co.óó,Š Ģ'#* Š352€F.3d€107,€113€(3d€Cir.€2003)€(citing€ņņSteve€Jackson€Gamesóó€andŠ x)Č$, Šconcluding€that€"[e]very€circuit€court€to€have€considered€theŠ $+t&. Šmatter€has€held€that€an€'intercept'€under€the€ECPA€must€occurŠ ° Šcontemporaneously€with€transmission.").€€The€type€of€temporaryŠ \¬ Šstorage€during€delivery€that€is€at€issue€in€this€case€is€irrelevantŠ X Što€the€post„transmission€storage€that€was€at€issue€in€ņņSteve€JacksonŠ “  ŠGamesóó.Š ` ° Šą ` ąCouncilman€and€the€district€court€also€cite€ņņKonopóó€v.Š  \  ŠņņHawaiian€Airlines,€Inc.óó,€302€F.3d€868,€878€n.6€(9th€Cir.€2002),€aŠ ø  Šcase€in€which€the€court€rejected€an€attempt€by€a€civil€plaintiff€toŠ d“  Šbroaden€the€scope€of€the€Wiretap€Act€to€encompass€communicationsŠ `  Šstored€on€a€website.€€In€a€footnote,€the€ņņKonopóó€court€noted€thatŠ ¼  Š"[t]he€dissent,€amici,€and€several€law€review€articles€argue€thatŠ hø Šthe€term€'intercept'€must€apply€to€electronic€communications€inŠ d Šstorage€because€storage€is€a€necessary€incident€to€the€transmissionŠ Ą Šof€electronic€communications,"€and€"if€the€term€'intercept'€doesŠ l¼ Šnot€apply€to€the€en€route€storage€of€electronic€communications,€theŠ h ŠWiretap€Act's€prohibition€against€'intercepting'€electronicŠ Ä Šcommunications€would€have€virtually€no€effect."€€Although€the€courtŠ pĄ  Šfound€these€argument€appealing,€it€held€that€"the€language€andŠ !l" Šstructure€of€the€ECPA€demonstrate€that€Congress€considered€andŠ Č"$ Šrejected€this€argument,"€and€that€the€Act's€broad€definition€of€theŠ t$Ä& Šterm€"electronic€storage"€belied€the€plaintiff's€interpretation€ofŠ  &p!( Šthe€Wiretap€Act.€€ņņId.óóŠ Ģ'#* Šą ` ąAgain,€context€is€important.€€The€ņņKonopóó€court€faced€theŠ x)Č$, Šquestion€of€whether€a€company€could€be€held€liable€for€accessingŠ $+t&. Šthe€employees'€private€secure€website€without€authorization.€€SinceŠ ° Šthe€data€in€a€website€are€static€and€the€Act€requires€interceptionŠ \¬ Šcontemporaneous€with€a€communication,€ņņid.óó€at€878„79,€it€held€thatŠ X Šdata€stored€in€a€website€cannot€be€considered€to€be€illegallyŠ “  Šintercepted€under€the€Wiretap€act€by€unauthorized€access€to€thatŠ ` ° Šwebsite.€€It€did€not€hold€that€electronic€communications€lose€theŠ  \  Šprotection€of€the€Wiretap€Act€as€soon€as€they€reach€a€computer.׃Yׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś14Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׀Š ø  ŠLike€the€ņņSteve€Jacksonóó€court,€the€ņņKonopóó€court€reiterated€the€viewŠ d“  Šthat€an€intercept€under€the€Wiretap€Act€is€defined€as€anŠ `  Šacquisition€contemporaneous€with€transmission.€€ņņId.óó€at€878.Š ¼  Šą ` ąFinally,€Councilman€briefly€cites€to€dicta€in€ņņUnitedŠ hø ŠStatesóó€v.€ņņSteigeróó,€318€F.3d€1039€(11th€Cir.€2003),€which€stated:€Š d Š"'There€is€only€a€narrow€window€during€which€an€E-mail€interceptionŠ Ą Šmay€occur--the€seconds€or€mili-seconds€before€which€a€newlyŠ l¼ Šcomposed€message€is€saved€to€any€temporary€location€following€aŠ h Šsend€command.'"€€ņņId.óó€at€1050€(quoting€Jarrod€J.€White,€ņņE-MailŠ Ä Š@Work.com:€Employer€Monitoring€of€Employee€E-€Mailóó,€48€Ala.€L.€Rev.Š pĄ  Š1079,€1083€(1997)).€€Councilman€failed€to€note€that€the€articleŠ !l" Šquoted€by€the€Eleventh€Circuit€was€discussing€the€impact€of€theŠ ° ŠņņSteve€Jacksonóó€decision€on€employers'€obligations€regarding€e„mail.€Š \¬ ŠLike€the€ņņSteve€Jacksonóó€court,€the€article€did€not€discuss€storageŠ X Šduring€transmission,€and€it€appears€that€the€"temporary€location"Š “  Šreferred€to€in€the€quoted€sentence€was€an€employee's€e„mailbox.€Š ` ° ŠEven€if€the€language€quoted€by€the€ņņSteigeróó€court€was€part€of€itsŠ  \  Šholding,€it€would€not€support€Councilman's€interpretation€of€theŠ ø  ŠECPA.Š d“  Šņ ņD.€€Our€Precedentó óŠ `  Šą ` ąApparently€recognizing€that€his€narrow€definition€of€theŠ Ų( ŠWiretap€Act€contradicts€our€ņņPharmatrakóó€decision,€CouncilmanŠ „Ō Šattempts€to€distinguish€that€case€from€this€one€by€pointing€outŠ 0€ Šthat€the€defendant€in€that€case€did€not€operate€an€electronicŠ Ü, Šcommunication€service,€and€by€claiming€that€the€communication€inŠ ˆŲ Šthat€case€was€not€"in€storage."€€The€first€distinction€isŠ 4„ Širrelevant.€€While€such€operators€have€limited€immunity€under€theŠ ą0 ŠStored€Communications€Act,€ņņseeóó€18€U.S.C.€šš€2701(c)(1),€the€WiretapŠ ŒÜ  ŠAct€does€not€shield€operators€from€liability€for€the€type€ofŠ 8!ˆ" Šconduct€at€issue€in€this€case.Š ä"4$ Šą ` ąThe€second€distinction€contradicts€the€rest€ofŠ $ą& ŠCouncilman's€argument.€€The€defendant€company€in€ņņPharmatrakóóŠ <&Œ!( Šinstalled€software€on€Internet€usersšš€computers€to€track€theŠ č'8#* Šwebsites€that€they€visited€and€to€log€the€information€that€theyŠ ”)ä$, Šsent€to€those€websites.€€The€program€recorded€this€information€inŠ @+&. Šreal€time€and€sent€that€data€to€one€of€Pharmatrak's€computers€forŠ ° Šprocessing.€€The€captured€information€would€qualify€as€being€"inŠ \¬ Šstorage"€under€Councilman's€definition:€€it€was€either€stored€inŠ X ŠRAM€or€on€a€user's€computer€hard€drive€when€the€program€accessedŠ “  Šit.€€We€dismissed€this€distinction,€however,€focusing€our€analysisŠ ` ° Šon€the€temporal€nature€of€the€interception,€and€holding€that€theŠ  \  Šdefendant€violated€the€Wiretap€Act€because€"[t]he€acquisition€byŠ ø  ŠPharmatrak€was€contemporaneous€with€its€transmission€by€theŠ d“  Šinternet€users."€€ņņId.óó€at€22.׃]ׯ ƒĆŻņņŚ  Ś15Ś  ŚóóŻ  Ż×  ׊ `  Šą ` ąAlthough€we€discussed€the€ongoing€debate€about€howŠ ¼  Šstrictly€courts€should€construe€the€contemporaneity€requirement,€weŠ hø Šconcluded€that€we€did€not€have€to€resolve€that€issue€becauseŠ d Š"[e]ven€those€courts€that€narrowly€read€'interception'€would€findŠ Ą Šthat€Pharmatrak's€acquisition€was€an€interception."€€ņņId.óó€€We€quotedŠ l¼ Šthe€ņņSteigeróó€court:Š h ŠÓÓą8 ` ą[U]nder€the€narrow€reading€of€the€Wiretap€ActŠ Ä Šwe€adopt€.€.€.,€very€few€seizures€ofŠ šź Šelectronic€communications€from€computers€willŠ pĄ  Šconstitute€'interceptions.'€.€.€.€'Therefore,Š F –! Šunless€some€type€of€automatic€routing€softwareŠ !l" Šis€used€(for€example,€a€duplicate€of€all€of€anŠ ° Šemployee's€messages€are€automatically€sent€toŠ †Ö Šthe€employee's€boss),€interception€of€E„MailŠ \¬ Šwithin€the€prohibition€of€[the€Wiretap€Act]€isŠ 2‚ Švirtually€impossible.'ŠX` x` x ŠĢÓ<*ÓņņId.óó€(quoting€ņņUnited€Statesóó€v.€ņņSteigeróó,€318€F.3d€at€1050Š “  Š(alterations€in€original).€€We€then€noted€that€Pharmatrak's€programŠ ` ° Šwould€qualify€under€the€ņņSteigeróó€definition€because€it€effectivelyŠ  \  Šwas€an€automatic€routing€program.€€ņņId.óó€€Much€like€the€data€loggingŠ ø  Šprogram€there,€the€Procmail€recipe€file€here€acted€as€an€automaticŠ d“  Šrouting€program.€€It€analyzed€all€of€the€e„mails€sent€toŠ `  ŠCouncilman's€mail€server€in€real€time€and€copied€the€relevant€onesŠ ¼  Šwhile€they€were€being€delivered.Š hø Šņ ņE.€€Vaguenessó óŠ d Šą ` ąFinally,€Councilman€claims€that€even€if€his€conductŠ Ü, Šviolated€the€Wiretap€Act,€the€district€court€correctly€dismissedŠ ˆŲ Šhis€indictment€on€vagueness€grounds€because€the€government'sŠ 4„ Šinterpretation€of€the€act€"criminalize[s]€a€broad€variety€ofŠ ą0 Šconduct€that€is€widely€and€reasonably€understood€to€be€lawful."Š ŒÜ  Šą ` ąThe€vagueness€doctrine€reflects€the€fundamental€notionŠ 8!ˆ" Šthat€"due€process€requires€that€criminal€statutes€put€individualsŠ ä"4$ Šon€sufficient€notice€as€to€whether€their€contemplated€conduct€isŠ $ą& Šprohibited."€€ņņSabettióó€v.€ņņDiPaoloóó,€16€F.3d€16,€17€(1st€Cir.€1994)Š <&Œ!( Š(quoting€ņņUnited€Statesóó€v.€ņņColš;šn„Ortizóó,€866€F.2d€6,€8€(1st€Cir.Š č'8#* Š1989)).€€This€standard€is€violated€only€when€"a€person€of€ordinaryŠ ”)ä$, Šintelligence€examining€[only]€the€language€of€the€statute€would€beŠ @+&. Šin€some€way€surprised€that€it€prohibited€the€conduct€in€question."€Š ° ŠņņId.óó€(internal€quotations€omitted).€€Mere€textual€ambiguity€is€notŠ \¬ Šsufficient:€€"If€run-of-the-mill€statutory€ambiguities€were€enoughŠ X Što€violate€the€Constitution,€no€court€could€ever€clarify€statutesŠ “  Šthrough€judicial€interpretation."€€ņņId.óó€at€18.Š ` ° Šą ` ąThe€Wiretap€Act€explicitly€states€that€"any€person€whoŠ  \  Šintentionally€intercepts€.€.€.€[any]€electronic€communication€...€Š ø  Šshall€be€punished€.€.€.€."€€As€the€Government€aptly€observes€in€itsŠ d“  Šbrief:Š `  ŠÓÓą8 ` ąThere€is€nothing€about€defendantššs€conductŠ ¼  Šthat€the€average€person€would€generallyŠ ’ā Šconsider€innocent.€€There€is€nothing€on€theŠ hø Šface€of€the€Wiretap€Act€that€would€lull€aŠ >Ž Šperson€of€average€intelligence€into€believingŠ d Šthat€an€electronic€communications€provider€mayŠ ź: Šintercept€electronic€mail€and€disclose€itsŠ Ą Šcontents€for€commercial€purposes.Š–ę` x` x ŠĢÓ–6ÓAlthough€Councilman€claims€that€his€scheme€to€copy€and€reviewŠ B’ Šincoming€e„mails€was€no€different€than€the€monitoring€and€junk€e„Š ī> Šmail€filtering€that€employers,€schools,€and€other€institutionsŠ šź Šroutinely€implement,€he€fails€to€note€that€these€entities€do€soŠ F –! Šwith€notice€and€the€consent€of€their€users,€and,€therefore,€thatŠ ņ!B# Štheir€conduct€is€not€illegal.€€ņņSeeóó€18€U.S.C.€šš€2511(2)(d)€("ItŠ ž#ī% Šshall€not€be€unlawful€under€this€chapter€for€a€person€.€.€.€toŠ J%š ' Šintercept€a€wire,€oral,€or€electronic€communication€.€.€.€where€oneŠ ö&F") Šof€the€parties€to€the€communication€has€given€prior€consent€to€suchŠ ¢(ņ#+ Šā āinterception€.€.€.€.").€€There€is€nothing€vague€about€the€WiretapŠ N*ž%- ŠAct,€and€Councilman€should€not€have€been€surprised€that€his€conductŠ ° Šconstituted€an€illegal€interception.Š \¬ Šā āą@Ō Ō ģąņ ņIV.€€ņņThe€Government's€Viewóóó óˆŠ X Šą ` ąAccording€to€the€Governmentššs€view€of€the€ECPA,€"anŠ Š  Š'intercept'€occurs€[and€the€Wiretap€Act€applies]€when€one€acquiresŠ | Ģ Šan€electronic€communication€contemporaneous€with€its€transmission."Š ( x  ŠIt€is€irrelevant€that€the€transmission€may€have€been€in€electronicŠ Ō$  Šstorage€at€the€time€of€the€acquisition.€€In€my€view,€thisŠ €Š  Šinterpretation€of€the€Act€is€consistent€with€Congressional€intent,Š ,|  Šprecedent,€and€the€realities€of€electronic€communication€systems.Š Ų( Šą ` ąThe€district€court€seemed€to€agree€with€one€predicate€ofŠ „Ō Šthe€Governmentššs€argument€when€it€acknowledged€that€"technologyŠ 0€ Šhas,€to€some€extent,€overtaken€language"€and€that€"[t]raveling€theŠ Ü, ŠInternet,€electronic€communications€are€often„„perhaps€constantly€Š ˆŲ Šboth€'in€transit'€and€'in€storage'€simultaneously."€€ņņCouncilmanóó,Š 4„ Š245€F.€Supp.€2d€at€321.€€This€apt€observation€should€have€promptedŠ ą0 Ša€different€legal€conclusion.Š ŒÜ  Šą ` ąAll€digital€transmissions€must€be€stored€in€RAM€or€onŠ 8!ˆ" Šhard€drives€while€they€are€being€processed€by€computers€duringŠ ä"4$ Štransmission.€€Every€computer€that€forwards€the€packets€thatŠ $ą& Šcomprise€an€e„mail€message€must€store€those€packets€in€memory€whileŠ <&Œ!( Šit€reads€their€addresses,€and€every€digital€switch€that€makes€upŠ č'8#* Šthe€telecommunications€network€through€which€the€packets€travelŠ ”)ä$, Šbetween€computers€must€also€store€the€packets€while€they€are€beingŠ @+&. Šrouted€across€the€network.€€Since€this€type€of€storage€is€aŠ ° Šfundamental€part€of€the€transmission€process,€attempting€toŠ \¬ Šseparate€all€storage€from€transmission€makes€no€sense.Š X Šą ` ąFurthermore,€in€addition€to€storing€the€individualŠ “  Špackets€during€routing,€intermediate€computers€must€temporarilyŠ ` ° Šstore€entire€e„mail€messages€during€transmission€at€various€pointsŠ  \  Šalong€the€route€from€sender€to€recipient.€€The€technicalŠ ø  Šspecification€for€this€type€of€e„mail€transmission€was€adopted€byŠ d“  Šthe€group€that€was€coordinating€standards€for€the€Internet€in€1982,Š `  Šņņseeóó€Jonathan€B.€Postel,€RFC€821€-€Simple€Mail€Transfer€Protocol,Š ¼  Šavailable€at€Ō4‚XŻ  ŌŻ‚UĶOŻŌ’ŌņņŻ  ŻŌ5  Ōóóhttp://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc821.htmlņņŌ6OGŌŻ‚UĶOcG€in€ŻóóŌ’ŌŻ  ŻŌ7aiā‘GŌ€(last€accessedŠ hø ŠMay€19,€2004),€and€this€standard€for€e„mail€transmission€was€in€useŠ d Šwell€before€Congress€adopted€the€ECPA€in€1986.€€Therefore,€whenŠ Ą ŠCongress€acted,€the€fallacy€of€excluding€from€the€scope€of€theŠ l¼ ŠWiretap€Act€a€message€in€storage€at€the€time€of€interception€wasŠ h Šwell„documented.€€The€government's€contemporaneous€v.€non„Š Ä Šcontemporaneous€dichotomy€accommodates€this€aspect€of€electronicŠ pĄ  Štechnology;€unlike€Councilmanššs€approach,€it€also€makes€sense€inŠ !l" Šthe€real€world.Š Č"$ Šą ` ąThe€government's€approach€is€also€fully€compatible€withŠ t$Ä& Šthe€portions€of€the€ECPA€that€Councilman€highlights€in€hisŠ  &p!( Šargument.€€In€a€strange€twist€of€logic,€Councilman€argues€thatŠ Ģ'#* ŠCongress's€broad€definition€of€the€term€"electronic€storage"Š x)Č$, Šsupports€his€view€that€the€e„mails€at€issue€in€this€case€wereŠ $+t&. Šprotected€by€the€Stored€Communications€Act€and€not€by€the€WiretapŠ ° ŠAct.€€Yet€the€legislative€history€demonstrates€that€CongressŠ \¬ Šadopted€this€broad€definition€to€ņņenlargeóó€privacy€protections€forŠ X Špersonal€data,€not€to€exclude€e„mails€stored€during€transmissionŠ “  Šfrom€the€strong€protections€of€the€Wiretap€Act.Š ` ° Šą ` ąResponding€to€concerns€raised€in€the€OTA€report,€CongressŠ  \  Šwanted€to€ensure€that€the€messages€and€by„product€files€that€areŠ ø  Šleft€behind€after€transmission€and€messages€stored€in€a€user'sŠ d“  Šmailbox€are€protected€from€unauthorized€access.€€The€OTA€identifiedŠ `  Šfour€states€during€which€a€stored€e„mail€message€could€be€accessed:Š ¼  Š1)€in€the€sender's€terminal;€2)€in€the€recipient's€terminal;€3)€inŠ hø Šthe€recipient's€paper€files€after€the€message€was€printed;€and€4)Š d Šin€the€service€provider's€electronic€files€when€retained€forŠ Ą Šadministrative€purposes.€€ņņElectronic€Surveillanceóó,€at€45.€€E„mailsŠ l¼ Šin€the€sender's€and€recipient's€terminals€could€be€accessed€byŠ h Š"breaking€into"€those€computers€and€retrieving€the€files.€€ņņId.óó€atŠ Ä Š48„49.€€As€discussed€in€Section€II,€ņņsupraóó,€the€victim€of€such€anŠ pĄ  Šattack€had€few€legal€remedies€for€such€an€invasion€prior€to€theŠ !l" ŠECPA.€€The€e„mails€retained€on€the€service€provider's€computersŠ Č"$ Šafter€transmission,€which€the€report€noted€are€primarily€retainedŠ t$Ä& Šfor€"billing€purposes€and€as€a€convenience€in€case€the€customerŠ  &p!( Šloses€the€message,"€could€be€accessed€and€possibly€disclosed€by€theŠ Ģ'#* Šprovider.€€ņņId.óó€at€50.€€Prior€to€the€ECPA,€it€was€not€clear€whetherŠ x)Č$, Šthe€user€had€the€right€to€challenge€such€a€disclosure.€€ņņId.óó€Š $+t&. ŠSimilar€concerns€applied€to€temporary€financial€records€andŠ ° Špersonal€data€retained€after€transmission.€€ņņId.óó€€Given€thatŠ \¬ Šbackground€and€evidence€in€the€legislative€history€that€CongressŠ X Šincorporated€much€of€the€OTA's€report€in€the€legislation,€itŠ “  Šappears€that€Congress€had€in€mind€these€types€of€pre€and€postŠ ` ° Štransmission€"temporary,€intermediate€storage€of€a€wire€orŠ  \  Šelectronic€communication€incidental€to€the€electronic€transmissionŠ ø  Šthereof,"€ņņseeóó€18€U.S.C.€šš€2510(17),€when€it€established€theŠ d“  Šdefinition€of€"electronic€storage."€€There€is€no€indication€that€itŠ `  Šmeant€to€exclude€the€type€of€storage€used€during€transmission€fromŠ ¼  Šthe€scope€of€the€Wiretap€Act.Š hø Šą ` ąIt€is€also€telling€that€virtually€none€of€the€discussionsŠ d Šof€electronic€storage€in€House€and€Senate€conference€reports€occurŠ Ą Šwithin€the€context€of€message€transmission€or€the€Wiretap€Act.€€If,Š l¼ Šas€the€District€Court€and€Councilman€suggest,€Congress€intended€toŠ h Šnarrow€the€scope€of€the€Wiretap€Act€by€adopting€a€broad€definitionŠ Ä Šof€"electronic€storage,"€it€would€likely€have€discussed€storageŠ pĄ  Šduring€transmission€while€it€discussed€the€new€provisions€in€theŠ !l" ŠWiretap€Act.Š Č"$ Šą ` ąIn€one€of€the€few€instances€in€which€Congress€discussedŠ t$Ä& Šmessage€storage€within€the€context€of€the€Wiretap€Act,€itŠ  &p!( Šexplicitly€distinguished€messages€in€transit€from€messages€inŠ Ģ'#* Šā āstorage.€€In€the€section€of€the€report€discussing€theŠ x)Č$, Šresponsibilities€of€service€providers€to€keep€communicationsŠ ° Šconfidential,€the€House€Committee€stated:Š \¬ Šā āÓÓą8 ` ąSection€2702(a)€[the€Stored€CommunicationsŠ X ŠAct]€generally€prohibits€the€provider€of€aŠ Ž. Šwire€or€electronic€communication€service€toŠ “  Šthe€public€from€knowingly€divulging€theŠ Š Ś Šcontents€of€any€communication€while€inŠ ` ° Šelectronic€storage€.€.€.€.€€Similarly€sectionŠ 6 †  Š2511(3)€of€title€18€[the€Wiretap€Act],€asŠ  \  Šamended,€prohibits€such€a€provider€fromŠ ā 2  Šdivulging€the€contents€of€a€communicationŠ ø  Šwhile€it€is€in€transmission.ŠŽŽ ` x` x ŠĢÓG\ÓH.R.€Rep.€No.€99„647,€at€65.Š :Š  Šą ` ąLikewise,€there€is€nothing€in€the€legislative€record€toŠ ę6 Šindicate€that€Congress€intended€to€reduce€the€protection€forŠ ’ā Šelectronic€communications€by€including€the€term€"electronicŠ >Ž Šstorage"€in€its€definition€of€"wire€communication."€€Instead,€asŠ ź: Šnoted€earlier,€it€appears€that€Congress€included€that€provision€inŠ –ę Šthe€ECPA€simply€to€expand€the€protections€for€voicemails.€€TheŠ B’ Šgovernment's€contemporaneous€v.€non„contemporaneous€approachŠ ī> Šrecognizes€that€Congress€had€to€specifically€include€storedŠ šź Švoicemails€in€the€definition€of€"wire€communication"€to€have€theŠ F –! ŠWiretap€Act€apply€to€those€communications.€€Without€the€explicitŠ ņ!B# Šaddition€of€voicemails€to€the€scope€of€the€Wiretap€Act,€theseŠ ž#ī% Šcommunications€would€have€been€regulated€by€the€StoredŠ J%š ' ŠCommunications€Act.€€Indeed,€that€is€exactly€what€happened€whenŠ ö&F") ŠCongress€removed€the€explicit€reference€to€"electronic€storage"Š ¢(ņ#+ Šfrom€the€definition€of€"wire€communication"€in€the€Uniting€andŠ N*ž%- ŠStrengthening€America€by€Providing€Appropriate€Tools€Required€toŠ ś+J'/ ŠIntercept€and€Obstruct€Terrorism€(USA€PATRIOT)€Act,€P.L.€107„56Š ° Ššš209,€115€Stat.€283€(2001).€€ņņSeeóó€ņņKonopóó,€302€F.3d€at€878€("ByŠ \¬ Šeliminating€storage€from€the€definition€of€wire€communication,Š X ŠCongress€essentially€reinstated€the€pre-ECPA€definition€ofŠ “  Š'intercept'--acquisition€contemporaneous€with€transmission-„withŠ ` ° Šrespect€to€wire€communications.");€Robert€A.€Pikowsky,€ņņAn€OverviewŠ  \  Šof€the€Law€of€Electronic€Surveillance€Post€September€11,€2001óó,€94Š ø  ŠLaw€Libr.€J.€601,€608€(2002)€("[T]he€USA€PATRIOT€Act€amended€theŠ d“  Šstatutory€scheme€and€unambiguously€brought€voicemail€under€theŠ `  ŠStored€Communications€Act.").Š ¼  Šą ` ąThis€result€creates€an€analogy€between€electronic€andŠ hø Šwire€communications:€€voicemails€are€to€telephone€calls€in€the€wireŠ d Šcommunication€context€as€messages€stored€in€mailboxes€are€to€e„Š Ą Šmails€in€transit€in€the€electronic€communications€context.€€ņņSeeóóŠ l¼ ŠņņPharmatrakóó,€329€F.3d€at€18€("ECPA€amended€the€Federal€Wiretap€ActŠ h Šby€extending€to€data€and€electronic€transmissions€the€sameŠ Ä Šprotection€already€afforded€to€oral€and€wire€communications.");Š pĄ  ŠņņKonopóó,€302€F.3d€at€878€(Congress€"accepted€and€implicitly€approvedŠ !l" Šthe€judicial€definition€of€'intercept'€as€acquisitionŠ Č"$ Šcontemporaneous€with€transmission.").€€The€Government's€approach€toŠ t$Ä& Šthe€ECPA€is€faithful€to€this€analogy.€€Acquisitions€of€conversationŠ  &p!( Šstored€in€voicemailboxes,€like€messages€stored€in€e„mailboxes,€doŠ Ģ'#* Šnot€occur€contemporaneously€with€communications;€therefore,€neitherŠ x)Č$, Šof€these€should€be€treated€as€intercepts€under€the€Wiretap€Act.€Š $+t&. ŠTelephone€wiretaps€and€acquisitions€of€e„mails€through€the€use€ofŠ ° ŠMUA€recipe€files,€on€the€other€hand,€do€occur€contemporaneouslyŠ \¬ Šwith€communications€and€should€be€considered€intercepts€under€theŠ X ŠWiretap€Act.Š “  Šą@$ $ ģąņ ņV.€€ņņExisting€Practices€and€Privacy€Protectionsóóó óˆŠ ` ° Šą ` ąThe€Government€observes€in€its€brief€that€its€criminalŠ ( x  Šinvestigators€would€stand€to€gain€by€the€court's€adoption€ofŠ Ō$  ŠCouncilman's€interpretation:€"If€defendant's€argument€prevails,€lawŠ €Š  Šenforcement€would€not€violate€the€Wiretap€Act€by€capturing€theŠ ,|  Šemail€without€a€wiretap€order.€€Instead,€law€enforcement€could€relyŠ Ų( Šon€lesser€legal€process,€with€lesser€judicial€oversight,€than€isŠ „Ō Šrequired€under€the€Wiretap€Act."€€As€discussed€in€Section€II,Š 0€ Šņņsupraóó,€the€Stored€Communications€Act€does€not€require€theŠ Ü, Šgovernment€to€follow€the€procedures€for€obtaining€a€wiretap€order.€Š ˆŲ ŠOfficers€can€seize€stored€records€for€any€crime€for€which€they€canŠ 4„ Šget€a€search€warrant;€their€search€can€extend€to€the€limits€of€theŠ ą0 ŠFourth€Amendment;€they€do€not€need€to€report€the€progress€of€theirŠ ŒÜ  Šsearch€to€courts;€and€defendants€do€not€have€an€extra„Š 8!ˆ" Šconstitutional€right€to€suppress€evidence€from€illegal€searches.Š ä"4$ Šą ` ąThe€Justice€Department's€current€policy€guidanceŠ $ą& Šmemorandum€assumes€that€the€type€of€communications€at€issue€hereŠ <&Œ!( Šfall€under€the€purview€of€the€Wiretap€Act.€€ņņSeeóó€United€StatesŠ č'8#* ŠDepartment€of€Justice,€Computer€Crime€and€Intellectual€PropertyŠ ”)ä$, ŠSection,€"Searching€and€Seizing€Computers€and€Obtaining€ElectronicŠ @+&. ŠEvidence€in€Criminal€Investigations"€šš€IV(d)€(2002)€("Since€itsŠ ° Šenactment€in€1968€and€amendment€in€1986,€[the€Wiretap€Act]€hasŠ \¬ Šprovided€the€statutory€framework€that€governs€ņņreal-timeóó€electronicŠ X Šsurveillance€of€the€contents€of€communications.")€(emphasis€added);Š “  ŠņņId.óó€("There€is€now€a€clear€and€uniform€statutory€distinctionŠ ` ° Šbetween€stored€electronic€and€wire€communications,€which€areŠ  \  Šsubject€to€[the€Stored€Communications€Act],€and€contemporaneousŠ ø  Šinterceptions€of€electronic€and€wire€communications,€which€areŠ d“  Šsubject€to€[the€Wiretap€Act].").€€Therefore,€it€has€been€theŠ `  ŠGovernment's€position€that€it€had€to€obtain€judicial€authorizationŠ ¼  Šunder€the€Wiretap€Act€to€seize€e„mails€contemporaneously€with€theirŠ hø Šdelivery.€€That€practice€would€likely€change€under€CouncilmanššsŠ d Šinterpretation€of€the€Act.€€For€example,€the€government€states€inŠ Ą Šits€brief€that€"to€implement€wiretap€orders€on€email€accounts,€theŠ l¼ ŠFederal€Bureau€of€Investigation€usually€relies€on€the€communicationŠ h Šservice€providers€to€conduct€the€acquisitions."€€The€providers€useŠ Ä ŠMUA€recipe€files€similar€to€the€one€in€this€case€to€intercept,Š pĄ  Šcopy,€and€deliver€the€targeted€e„mails€to€the€government€as€theyŠ !l" Šare€being€delivered.€€Under€Councilman's€narrow€interpretation€ofŠ Č"$ Šthe€Act,€the€Government€would€no€longer€need€to€obtain€a€court„Š t$Ä& Šauthorized€wiretap€order€to€conduct€such€surveillance.€€This€wouldŠ  &p!( Šeffectuate€a€dramatic€change€in€Justice€Department€policy€and€markŠ Ģ'#* Šā āa€significant€reduction€in€the€public's€right€to€privacy.Š x)Č$, Šą ` ąSuch€a€change€would€not,€however,€be€limited€to€theŠ ° Šā āinterception€of€e„mails.€€Under€Councilman's€approach,€theŠ \¬ Šgovernment€would€be€free€to€intercept€all€wire€and€electronicŠ X Šcommunications€that€are€in€temporary€electronic€storage€withoutŠ “  Šhaving€to€comply€with€the€Wiretap€Act's€procedural€protections.€Š ` ° ŠThat€means€that€the€Government€could€install€taps€at€telephoneŠ  \  Šcompany€switching€stations€to€monitor€phone€conversations€that€areŠ ø  Štemporarily€"stored"€in€electronic€routers€during€transmission.€Š d“  ŠņņSeeóó€ņņUnited€States€Telecom.€Assššnóó€v.€ņņFCCóó,€227€F.3d€450,€464€(D.C.Š `  ŠCir.€2000)€("[In€a€digital€telephone€network,]€a€call€is€brokenŠ ¼  Šinto€a€number€of€discrete€digital€data€packets,€each€travelingŠ hø Šindependently€through€the€network€along€different€routes.€DataŠ d Špackets€are€then€reassembled€in€the€proper€sequence€at€the€call'sŠ Ą Šdestination");€United€States€Congress,€Office€of€TechnologyŠ l¼ ŠAssessment,€ņņElectronic€Surveillance€in€a€Digital€Ageóó€33€(1995)Š h Š(stating€that€eighty€percent€of€the€telephone€switches€in€theŠ Ä ŠUnited€States€in€1991€were€digital);€ņņsee€alsoóó€18€U.S.C.€šš€1002Š pĄ  Š(requiring€telephone€companies€to€ensure€that€the€governmentŠ !l" Šretains€the€ability€to€intercept€calls€as€the€company€installs€newŠ Č"$ Štechnologies).€€It€could€install€"packet€sniffer,"€software,Š t$Ä& Šcomputer€programs€that€record€the€contents€of€all€of€the€packetsŠ  &p!( Štraveling€through€a€network,€on€the€servers€of€Internet€ServiceŠ Ģ'#* ŠProviders€(ISPs)€without€having€to€comply€with€the€Wiretap€Act.€Š x)Č$, ŠņņSeeóó€Kerr,€ņņsupraóó,€at€651€("[A]€system€administrator€(or€aŠ $+t&. Štwelve-year€old€computer€hacker)€can€easily€monitor€all€informationŠ ° Šflowing€through€a€particular€point€in€a€network€by€writing€a€simpleŠ \¬ Šprogram.").Š X Šą ` ąIn€short,€Councilman's€approach€to€the€Wiretap€Act€wouldŠ “  Šundo€decades€of€practice€and€precedent€regarding€the€scope€of€theŠ ` ° ŠWiretap€Act€and€would€essentially€render€the€Act€irrelevant€to€theŠ  \  Šprotection€of€wire€and€electronic€privacy.€€Since€I€find€itŠ ø  Šinconceivable€that€Congress€could€have€intended€such€a€resultŠ d“  Šmerely€by€omitting€the€term€"electronic€storage"€from€itsŠ `  Šdefinition€of€"electronic€communication,"€I€respectfully€dissent.ņņŠ ¼  Š