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D$XXXX      2    _ ` Specifically,theestateassertedlegaltheoriesof(a)  conspiracytoprotect_Bulger_Ԁand_Flemmi_Ԁfromarrestandprosecution  asaproximatecauseofMcIntyre'skidnaping,tortureandexecution \ inviolationofMcIntyre'sFirst,Fourth,andFifthAmendment 2 rights;(b)violationofthosesameFourthandFifthAmendment X rights,statedasclaimsunder_Bivens_v.SixUnknownNamedAgents, . 403U.S.388(1971);and(c)wrongfuldeath,inviolationofMass.   Gen.Lawsch.229,2,6. (;3$2#  0  .3  0  HP LaserJet 5/5M - Standard,,,,03#37=CIQYag1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)i)   *+ (_2623  ..*G+M (_25   /%` ` hp x /23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5   { D$XXXX      6    _ ` Totheextentthattheplaintiffdoesintendthesecond  theoryasanindependentbasisforliability,theUnitedStatesis  freetochallengetheavailabilityofthattheoryonremand.*D+M (_24   ," hp x ,23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *A+M (_23  ` ) hp x )23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *>+M (_22   &hhp x &23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *;+M (_21   #p x #23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *8+M (_20  h  p x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *5+M (_19   pp x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5  *2+M (_18    x 23  ..  5+ ` hp x 5   d* (_1723  Ԁ*GM (_16   /%` ` hp x /23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *DM (_15   ," hp x ,23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *AM (_14  ` ) hp x )23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *>M (_13   &hhp x &23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *;M (_12   #p x #23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *8M (_11  h  p x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  *5M (_10   pp x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  (2M &_9    x 23  Ԁ  5+ ` hp x 5  ( &_823  (GM &_7   /%` ` hp x /23   5+ ` hp x 5  (DM &_6   ," hp x ,23   5+ ` hp x 5  (AM &_5  ` ) hp x )23   5+ ` hp x 5  (>M &_4   &hhp x &23   5+ ` hp x 5  (;M &_3   #p x #23   5+ ` hp x 5  (8M &_2  h  p x 23   5+ ` hp x 5  (5M &_1   pp x 23   5+ ` hp x 5  &2M $_    x 23   5+ ` hp x 5  0.Normal<:Definition T<AA:Definition L , 5+ ` hp x 5  5+ ` hp x 586Definition(''&H1      (&H2  (&H3  (&H4 XXX (&H5  (&H6  20Address8MM6Blockquote , , 5+ ` hp x 5   5+ ` hp x 5,*CITE,dl*CODEKZ<6X9`(Courier NewKS[\  `&Times New RomanS42Emphasis64Hyperlink    <:FollowedHype    4go2Keyboard KZ<6X9`(Courier NewKS[\  `&Times New RomanS <:Preformatted/%  ,Kk %#/KZ<6X9`(Courier NewKS[\  `&Times New RomanS/%  ,Kk %#/<:zBottom of 7O(X7  ?\%2A`Arial?  S[\  `&Times New RomanS7P(X7&  d dN)1dxd'dxd<:zTop of For7R(X7  ?\%2A`Arial?  S[\  `&Times New RomanS7P(X7N)2dxd0KS.SampleKZ<6X9`(Courier NewKS[\  `&Times New RomanS0.Strong 8dl6TypewriterKZ<6X9`(Courier NewKS[\  `&Times New RomanS42Variable: 8HTML MarkupB      2 0CommentB  ()*+,-./ 35;AGMSY_11.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.<6X9`(Courier New\  `&Times New Roman%2A`Arial D$XXXX      1    _ ` WerefertotheplaintiffinthiscaseasMcIntyre. E D$XXXX      3    _ ` BoththeWheelerandMcIntyreadministrativeclaimsalso  includedclaimsthatFBIagentshadobstructedandimpededthe  investigationoftherespectivemurders.Butintheirsuitsin \ federalcourt,bothsetsofplaintiffsraisedcoverupclaimsonly 2 againstindividualFBIagents, notagainsttheUnitedStates X itself. . D$XXXX      5    _ ` Theplaintiffsheredonotarguethatthependencyofa  governmentinvestigationshouldautomaticallytollaccrualoftheir  claims.Thatargumentwasrejectedin_ Skwira_ ,whichfoundno \ statutorybasisforsuchtolling.See344F.3dat8586(Boudin, 2 C.J.,concurring). __ D$XXXX      4    _ ` Werefertotheestateandindividualplaintiffsinthis  caseastheWheelers.- -    e  ##"Xd#     ##"Xd# /#"Xd# e  G D$XXXX      7    _ ` See_Bibeau_v.Pac.NorthwestRes.Found.,Inc.,No.97  35825,1999U.S.App.LEXIS38092,at*13(9thCir.Aug.19,1999)  (additional_factfinding_Ԁnecessarytodetermineifpresscoverage \ wouldhavereasonablyputasimilarlysituatedplaintiffon 2 notice);_Orikow_v.UnitedStates,682F.Supp.77,85(_D.D.C._Ԁ1988) X (more_factfinding_Ԁnecessaryforaccrualof_FTCA_Ԁclaimbecause . "[_n]ewspaper_Ԁarticlescontainingallegationsdonotnecessarily   placecitizensonnoticewhenthereisnoevidencethatthese   articleswereread").  D$XXXX      8    _ ` CompareIrwinv.Dep'tofVeteransAffairs,498U.S.89,  94(1990)(statingthatequitabletollingappliesinTitleVII  suitsagainstthegovernmentonthesametermsasitwouldagainst \ aprivateemployer),withUnitedStatesv._ Beggerly_ ,524U.S.38, 2 4950(1998)(holdingthatequitabletollingdoesnotapplyto X actionsundertheQuietTitleAct,28U.S.C.2409a,forreasons .  thatcouldalsoapplytothe_ FTCA_ ). !XXXX  _=Xdd=TRY,3'X3' Letter 3' Letter3'T ? * !X)XXX. XX)     PUnitedStatesCourtofAppeals.   FortheFirstCircuit   XX   S   `     h     A') ` dE< ` A      `     h No.031823 K    @@ EMILYMCINTYRE,asAdministratoroftheEstateofJohnL.  G  McIntyre;CHRISTOPHERMCINTYRE,asCoadministratoroftheEstate    ofJohnL.McIntyre,   H@Plaintiffs,Appellants, O     `     h      p   @tt)v. K  @UNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA,  @<< Defendant,Appellee, S   @@ H.PAULRICO;JOHNMORRIS;JOHNJ.CONNOLLY;RODERICKKENNEDY; O ROBERTFITZPATRICK;JAMESRING;JAMESGREENLEAF;JAMESAHEARN; % KEVINJ.WEEKS;JAMESJ.BULGER;STEPHENFLEMMI;  JOHNDOES,Nos.150,  Defendants. -} A') ` dE<` A ) No.031791    LAWRENCEA.WHEELER,IndividuallyandasSpecialAdministratorof j  theEstateofRogerM.Wheeler;PATRICIAJ.WHEELER,Individually @ ! andasSpecialAdministratrixoftheEstateofRogerM.Wheeler; !f" PAMELA(WHEELER)NORBERG;DAVIDB.WHEELER;MARKK.WHEELER, !<# w@Plaintiffs,Appellants, #% @tt)v. D% ' @UNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA, &@") @<< Defendant,Appellee, (#+   JOHNJ.CONNOLLY,JR.;JOHNM.MORRIS;H.PAULRICO; H*%- ROBERTFITZPATRICK;JAMESA.RING;JAMESGREENLEAF; +n&. JAMESAHEARN;JAMESJ.BULGER,a/k/aWhitey; +D'/ STEPHENJ.FLEMMI,a/k/aTheRifleman;JOHNV.MARTORANO; ,(0 JOHNDOES,Nos._1-50, -(1? P     Defendants.   A') ` dE<1` A 2 @` ` APPEALSFROMTHEUNITEDSTATESDISTRICTCOURT g @0 0 FORTHEDISTRICTOFMASSACHUSETTS = @[Hon.ReginaldG.Lindsay,U.S.DistrictJudge]   A') ` dE<D ` A E   @'Before * z    Lynch,CircuitJudge, &  Cyr,SeniorCircuitJudge,   andHoward,CircuitJudge.   A') ` dE<` A T       WilliamE.Christie,withwhomStevenM.Gordonand_Shaheen_Ԁ&  Gordon,P.A.wereonbrief,forappellantsEmilyMcIntyreand  ChristopherMcIntyre. k   RichardA._Olderman_,Attorney,AppellateStaff,withwhom g RobertS.Greenspan,Attorney,AppellateStaff,PeterD._Keisler_, = AssistantAttorneyGeneral,andMichaelJ.Sullivan,UnitedStates  Attorney,wereonbrief,forappelleeUnitedStatesintheMcIntyre  case. o   FrankA.Libby,Jr.,withwhomDouglasS.BrooksandKelly, k  Libby&_Hoopes_,P.C.wereonbrief,forappellantsLawrenceA. A! Wheeler,PatriciaJ.Wheeler,Pamela(Wheeler)_Norberg_,DavidB. " Wheeler,andMarkK.Wheeler. #   RichardA._Olderman_,Attorney,AppellateStaff,withwhom I!% RobertS.Greenspan,Attorney,AppellateStaff,PeterD._Keisler_, "o& AssistantAttorneyGeneral,MichaelJ.Sullivan,UnitedStates "E' Attorney,andJeffreyS._Bucholtz_,DeputyAssistantAttorney #( General,wereonbrief,forappelleeUnitedStatesintheWheeler $) case. w% * *'ddd Xdd Xdd X(#(#,( dd ,( dd ,( dd +  'I#-'I#  SI](#. @38116@SMay10,2004 3)$0  RHC *Y%1" @38116 @ R(](#2  (  * !     `  , (4 _  8XXdd8g*,X` XX*XXX XhOYiWjCkOY+lOY/mCn+ ` LYNCH,CircuitJudge .Thesetwocasesinvolveclaims  againsttheUnitedStates# XXXXf#XXX XԀundertheFederalTortClaimsAct(FTCA), x 28U.S.C.2671etseq.# XXXX#XXX X,# XXXXB#XXX Xarisingoutofallegedwrongful# XXXX#XXX Xactions $t ofFBIagents.# XXXX#XXX X    ` OnSeptember15,1999,adiligentfederaltrialjudge |  sittinginanorganizedcrimecaseissuedalengthyopinion ( x  outliningapossiblepatternofcorruptioninvolvingatleasttwo $  FBIagents,JohnConnollyandhissupervisorJohnMorris,andtwo   notoriousBostoncriminals,James"Whitey"BulgerandStephen"the ,|  Rifleman"Flemmi.SeeUnitedStatesv.Salemme,91F.Supp.2d141 ( (D.Mass.1999). # XXXXZ#XXX XSuchcorruptionhadbeenrumoredbuthadbeen  deniedbytheFBI. L  # XXXX# XXX X ` The1999opinionbyJudgeWolfrevealedthatBulgerand H Flemmi,whowereleadersoftheWinterHillGang,acrimesyndicate  involvedinmurder,bribery,extortion,loansharking,andgambling P operations, hadbeenhighlevelFBIinformantssincethe1970s, L  aidingtheagencyinitsinvestigationofLaCosaNostra,arival   crimesyndicate. The# XXXX#XXX XopinionraisedtheprospectthatBulgerand T!" FlemmihadreceivednumerousbenefitsfromtheFBI# XXXX!#XXX XԀinreturn# XXXXb"#XXX X, #l$ includingprotectionfromprosecution,andattimes,accesstothe $ & namesofinformantswhowerethemselvesprovidinginformationto t&!( theFBIaboutthecriminalactivitiesofBulgerandFlemmi.Id.at  (p#*  14863,322.Someoftheinformantsmayhavebeenkilledasa )%, mC m8XXdXXd8 m  result,andthemurderousactivitiesofBulgerandFlemmicovered  up.Id.at20813. \   ` TheopinionspeculatedthatAgentConnollymayhave X disclosedtoBulgerandFlemmitheidentityofanindividual,John   McIntyre,whowasaninformantforthelocalQuincypoliceandwas `  debriefedbytheFBI,UnitedStatesCustomsService,andtheDrug  \  EnforcementAdministration(DEA).Id.at21315.McIntyre   disappearedroughlysixweeksafteranOctober17,1984interview d  withFBIAgentRoderickKennedy,inwhichMcIntyrehadlinked `  Bulgertogunrunninganddrugsmugglingoperations.Id.Hisbody   wasfoundfifteenyearslater,onJanuary14,2000,inamakeshift h gravenearBoston. Buttheopinion,publishedinSeptember1999,# XXXX"#XXX X d ultimatelyconcludedthatitcouldnotbedeterminedwhetherFBI  AgentKennedyhad,infact,sharedthisinformationaboutMcIntyre l withConnollyandwhetherConnolly,inturn,hadtoldBulger.Id. h at21415.Thatwasbecause,asthecourtsaidlater,"important  FBIdocumentsconcerningJohnMcIntyrewere...improperly p  withheldbyagentsoftheBostonFBIuntilitwastoolateto !l" questionrelevantwitnessesconcerningthem."UnitedStatesv. "$ Flemmi,195F.Supp.2d243,24950(D.Mass.2001). t$&  ` TheopinionalsoindicatedthelikelihoodthatAgent  &p!( ConnollyhaddisclosedtoBulgerthenameofanotherinformantas '#* toBulger'scrimes,BrianHalloran.InJanuary1982,Hallorantold x)$, twoFBIagentsthatBulgerandFlemmihadcausedthe1981murderof $+t&. hOY h h  aTulsabusinessman,RogerWheeler# XXXX(#XXX X.ConnollylearnedofHalloran's  cooperationanddisclosedittoBulger.Halloranwasmurderedin \ May1982.Salemme,91F.Supp.2dat208210.AgentMorris X testifiedtothissequenceofeventsinhearingsbeforeJudgeWolf   inApril1998. `   ` AgentConnollywasindictedonOctober11,2000and  \  chargedwithnumerouscrimes,including"alert[ing]Bulgerand   Flemmitotheidentityofconfidentiallawenforcementinformants d  inordertoprotectBulger'sandFlemmi'songoingcriminal `  activities"andtakingotherstepstoprotectBulgerandFlemmi.    ConnollywaschargedwithinducingAgentMorristodothesame,in h violationofMorris'slegalobligations.Amongtheseveral d racketeeringactschargedwasthatConnollyhadtoldBulgerand  FlemmiofHalloran'sstatementsthatBulgerandFlemmihadcaused l Wheeler'smurder.Inturn,theindictmentcharged,Bulgercaused h Hallorantobemurdered.Connollywasconvicted,andhis  convictionwasaffirmedonappeal.UnitedStatesv.Connolly,341 p  F.3d16(1stCir.2003). !l"  ` OnMay25,2000,theestateofJohnMcIntyre,throughits "$ administrator(McIntyre'smother# XXXX-#XXX X,EmilyMcIntyre)andco t$& administrator(McIntyre'sbrother,ChristopherMcIntyre),filedan  &p!( administrativeclaimagainsttheUnitedStatesundertheFTCA.] #  1      ׀ '#* TheessenceofthetheorybehindtheclaimwasthattheFBIhad(i) x)$, directlycausedthedeathofJohnMcIntyre,whenAgentConnolly  informedBulgerandFlemmithatMcIntyrewascooperatingwith \ certainauthoritiesinvestigatingBulgerandFlemmi,thussigning X McIntyre'sdeathwarrant,and(ii)indirectlycausedMcIntyre's   deaththroughtheprotectiontheFBIaffordedBulgerandFlemmi, `  whichencouragedandenabledthemtocommitmurders,includingthat  \  ofMcIntyre. #  2      ׀ AsecondadministrativecomplaintwasfiledonJune   8,2000.  d   ` OnMay11,2001,theestateofRogerWheeler,the `  murderedTulsabusinessman,filedanadministrativeclaimunderthe   FTCAagainsttheUnitedStates. Thetheoryoftheclaimwasthat h theFBI'sillicitprotectionofBulgerandFlemmihadfacilitated 0 themurderofRogerWheeler.aN #  3      ׀ # XXXX3#XXX XThislegaltheorydifferedfromthat , articulatedintheMcIntyrecase,astherewasnodirect   relationshipbetweentheFBIandWheeler.  4  ` TheUnitedStatesfailedtoactoneitherclaimwithin   therequiredsixmonthperiod, thusgivingbothestatestheoption, \ whichtheytook,oftreatingthoseclaimsashavingbeendenied. X See28U.S.C.2675(a). Induecourse,bothfiledsuitagainst   theUnitedStatesaswellasvariousFBIagentsintheBoston `  office,Bulger,Flemmi,andothermembersoftheWinterHillGang# XXXX6:#XXX X.  \   ` McIntyre'sclaimsagainsttheUnitedStatesconsistedof   (1)threecountsunderMass.Gen.Lawsch.229,2forcivil d  conspiracy,negligence,andsupervisoryliability,causing `  McIntyre'sdeathand(2)threecountsunderMass.Gen.Lawsch.   229,6,correspondingtothethreecountsunder2,for h negligentlycausingMcIntyre'sconscioussufferingwhilehewas d kidnapped,torturedandkilled.    ` TheclaimsoftheWheelerestatewerejoinedbyRoger l Wheeler'swidowandfourofhisfivechildren,suingindividually.e #  4      ׀ h  TheWheelers'claimsagainsttheUnitedStatessoughttoholdit  directlyandvicariouslyliablefor(1)twocountsoftortious p  conductcausingWheeler'sdeathunderMass.Gen.Lawsch.229,2; !l" (2)twocountsofcausingRogerWheeler'sconscioussufferingthe "$ momentsimmediatelybeforehismurderunderMass.Gen.Lawsch. t$& 229,6;and(3)onecountofcausingemotionaldistressto  &p!( Wheelerandhisfamily.  '#* n+ n8XXdXXd8e n   ` TheUnitedStatesmovedtodismissinbothsuitsonthe  groundthatneithersetofplaintiffsfiledtheiradministrative \ claimswithintherequiredtwoyearperiodfromtheaccrualofthe X causeofaction.See28U.S.C.2401(b).Thedistrictcourt   agreedinbothcases.McIntyrev.UnitedStates,254F.Supp.2d `  183,193(D.Mass.2003);Wheelerv.UnitedStates,No.0210464  \  RCL(D.Mass.March31,2003).Thisconsolidatedappealisfrom   thedismissalsoftheFTCAclaimsagainsttheUnitedStatesand d  reviewsthesingleissue,ontwosetsoffacts,ofwhentheclaims `  "accrued"forFTCApurposes.Tobetimely,theMcIntyreclaimshad   toaccrueonorafterMay25,1998,andtheWheelerclaimsonor h afterMay11,1999.# XXXXX=#XXX X d @tt) I.    ` Thefollowingfactsarepresentedinthelightmost  favorabletotheplaintiffs.SeeMunizRiverav.UnitedStates, 4 326F.3d8,11(1stCir.2003)# XXXXG#XXX X.Thefactsaredrawnfromthetwo 0 complaintsandthematerialssubmittedtothedistrictcourtonthe   respective# XXXXH#XXX XԀmotionstodismiss.# XXXXI#XXX XGonzalezv.UnitedStates,284F.3d 8!" 281,288(1stCir.2002)(onamotiontodismisspursuanttoFed. "4$ R.Civ.P.12(b)(1),thecourtmaylooktosupplementalmaterials $& inadditiontopleadings).WealsodrawonfactsfoundinUnited <&!( Statesv.Salemme,supra.# XXXXJ#XXX X '8#* _ @+&. 3,XX X,X` X3 A.0  FactualandProceduralBackgroundRelevanttoMcIntyre (#(# 7,X` X,XX X L7 ` InmidOctober1984,JohnMcIntyrebegancooperatingwith x Richard_Bergeron_ԀoftheQuincyPoliceDepartment._Salemme_,91F. $t Supp.2dat213.McIntyretold_Bergeron_Ԁthathewasanengineeron   ashipnamedtheValhallathathadbeenusedinanunsuccessful |  attempttodelivergunsandammunitionfromMassachusettstothe ( x  IrishRepublicanArmy(IRA)inIreland.Hesaidthatheworkedfor $  JosephMurray,whosecretlyownedtheValhallaandwasclosely   connectedto_Bulger_,andthat_Bulger_Ԁwasinvolvedintheattempted ,|  armsshipmentthroughhisassociatesKevinWeeksandPatrickNee. ( McIntyrealsomentioned_Flemmi_.Id._Bergeron_ԀtoldAgentRoderick  Kennedy,anFBIliaisonofficer,thatMcIntyrewascooperatingand 0 thatMcIntyrehadlinked_Bulger_ԀandhisassociatestotheValhalla. , # XXXXK#XXX X_Bergeron_ԀarrangedforagentsfromtheDEAandUnitedStatesCustoms  Service,alongwithAgentKennedy,toparticipateinMcIntyre's 4 debriefing.KennedyandaCustomsagentinterviewedMcIntyreon 0 October17,1984. McIntyretoldthemthat_Bulger_'sassociate   PatrickNeehadtraveledtoIrelandtomeettheValhalla.Id.at 8!" 214.# XXXX9R#XXX X# XXXXT#XXX XMcIntyrealsotoldthemthatMurraywaspartnersina "4$ separatedrugsmugglingoperationwith"anindividualnamedWhitey $& whooperatesaliquorstoreinSouthBoston,"whomKennedy <&!( understoodtobe_Bulger_.Id. AroundNovember30,1984,McIntyre '8#*  disappeared.  )$, _ ` ChristopherMcIntyre,John'sbrother,statedbyaffidavit   thatheandEmilyMcIntyre,John'smother,filedmultiplemissing \ personsreportswiththeQuincypolice.Christophersaidthatthe X governmenttoldhimononeoccasionthatthe"mob"hadmurdered   John,butlater# XXXXT#XXX XԀtoldhimthatJohnwas"alive,afugitivefrom `  justiceandwouldbeprosecutedifcaught." Emilyalsostatedby  \  affidavitthatshehadmade"repeatedrequests"tothegovernment   forinformationorhelpinfindinghersonbutreceivednone.  d  Instead,shesaid,governmentagentstoldherthat"Johnwasa `  fugitive." Ina2000BostonHerald# XXXX9X#XXX XԀinterview,bothEmilyand   ChristophersaidthattheyhadsuspectedBulger'shandinJohn's h disappearancein1984butsaidnothingoutoffear.  d  ` OnApril15,1986,althoughMcIntyrewasstillmissing,  agrandjuryindictedhimalongwithMurray,Nee,andfourothers l fortheirrolesintheValhallaoperationanddrugsmuggling. h  BulgerandFlemmiwerenotnamedasdefendantsorotherwise  mentionedintheindictment. Thegrandjuryreturnedasuperseding p  indictmentonMay8,1986,whichagaindidnotnameBulgeror !l" Flemmiasdefendants. Thecourtthenissuedawarrantfor "$ McIntyre'sarrest. OnSeptember6,1995,anoteappearedinthe t$& docketoftheValhallaprosecution :"CasereopenedastoJohn  &p!( Crawley,JohnMcIntyre,MichaelNigro.NOTE:Casepreviously '#*  closedinerror.DefendantsCrawley,McIntyreandNigroremain x)$, fugitives ." ThecaseremainedopenuntilMarch20,2000,when  McIntyre'sdeathhadbeenconfirmed.  x   ` Meanwhile,onApril16,1986,shortlyafterthefirst $t indictment,# XXXXQZ#XXX XattorneyJohnLoftus,actingonbehalfofEmily,Chris,   andPatriciaMcIntyre,John'ssister,sentalettertotheAttorney |  General,UnitedStatesCustomsService,DEA,StateDepartment,and ( x  UnitedStatesAttorneyfortheDistrictofMassachusetts.TheFBI $  wasnotoneoftheaddresseesontheletter. Theletter,whose   subjectlinewas"Re:WrongfulDeathofJohnL.McIntyre,"alleged ,|  thatJohnMcIntyrewasagovernmentinformantconcerningIRAgun ( runninginBoston,thatfederalauthoritiesleakedhisinformant  statustotheBritishgovernment,andthattheBritishgovernment 0 toldtheIRA,resultinginMcIntyre'sabductionandmurder.  ,  ` OnJune2,1986,EmilyMcIntyreaskedtheVeterans  Administration(VA)toerectaheadstonemarkerforhersonatthe 4 MassachusettsNationalCemetery.  0  ` OnSeptember20,1988,theBostonGloberanareport   describingBulgerasanFBIinformantandraisingthepossibility 8!" thatBulger"hasbeenabletoexploithiscachetwiththeFBI"to "4$ evadeinvestigationandapprehensionbythestatepoliceandthe $& DEA. ThearticlesuggestedthattheFBImayhavetippedBulgeroff <&!( torecordingdevicesinhishomeandcarandtothetimingofsting (T#* operations. ButitdidnotraisethepossibilitythattheFBI )%, leakedinformationtoBulgeraboutinformantsinhis_own \+&. organizationorshieldedhimfromprosecutionforcrimeslike  murder.NordidthearticlementionMcIntyre.Thearticle \ reportedthat X 3,XX X,X` X30   ` StatePoliceofficials...askedtheFBIto   conductaninternalinquiry.TheFBIclearedtwoagents,   andtheFBIleadershipremainsoutragedatthesuggestion `  thatanyofitsownwouldengageinthatkindof 6   treachery. \    0   ` JamesF._Ahearn_,specialagentinchargeoftheFBI  2  inBoston,wasunequivocalwhenaskedlastmonthif   _Bulger_ԀhashadrelationswiththeFBIthathavelefthim   freeofitsscrutiny.d    0   ` "Thatisabsolutelyuntrue,"said_Ahearn__._Ԁ"Wehave :  nothadevidencethatwouldwarrantitandifwedo `  developanythingofanevidentiarynature,wewillpursue 6 it.Wespecificallydenythattherehasbeenspecial   treatmentofthisindividual."Hedeclinedtomakeany  furthercommentonthematterandinstructedConnollynot h tospeakonthesubject. 8h>   *h7,X` X,XX XJh7 ` In1989,EmilyMcIntyreand_Loftus_ԀpublishedValhalla's : Wake:TheIRA,MI6,andtheAssassinationofaYoungAmerican  (AtlanticMonthlyPress). Inthebook,theyindicatedawareness B thatJohnhadtiestotheIRAandthe"Mob"andthathefaced > possible"Mob[]retribution"forhiscooperationwiththe  government. TheystatedthatJohn'sbluepickuptruckhadbeen F ! spottedatMurray'splaceofbusinessandthatitwaslaterfound !B# underabridgewithhisuncashedVAcheckinside. Butthey #% ultimatelytheorizedthatBritishintelligencewasresponsiblefor J% ' John'smurder.BasedontheMcIntyrefamily'sowninvestigation &F") intoJohn'sdeath,whichinvolvedinterviewswith"anIRAcourier" (#+ anda"source"withinBritishintelligence,thebookspeculated N*%- thatBritishintelligencehaditsownmoleintheValhalla, +J'/ _discoveredfromUnitedStatesCustomsagentsthatMcIntyrewasan  informantonarelateddrugsmugglingoperation,falselytoldthe \ IRAthatMcIntyrewasaninformantontheValhallaoperationto X divertattentionfromtheBritishmole,andthenmurderedMcIntyre   topreventhimfromrefutingthestory.  `   ` InOctober1991,EmilyMcIntyreappliedtotheVAfor  \  deathbenefitsunderherson'spolicy.    Ѐ ` Intheearlytomid1990s,theBostonGlobepublisheda d  seriesofarticlesonMcIntyre'sdisappearance.Oneofthose `  articles,appearingonDecember24,1992,statedthatSean   O'Callaghan,aformerIRAoperative,hadtippedofftheIrish h policetothe1984ValhallashipmentandthattheIRAmayhave d mistakenlysuspectedMcIntyreofbeingtheleakandmurderedhim.   Thestory,whichquotedEmilyMcIntyre,saidthat"[m]ost l authoritiesbelieveMcIntyrewasdoneinbyhisassociates,... h mostofwhomwereinthenowdefunctWinterHillGang"headedby  Bulger.ThearticlenotedthatwhenBulgerheardthattheValhalla p  hadbeenseized,hesaid,inaconversationsecretlyrecordedby !l" DEAbugsinhisapartment,"That'sourstuff," andthatMcIntyre "$ waslastseenwithPatrickNee,aBulgerassociate.Butthestory t$& madenoconnectionbetweentheFBIandMcIntyre'sdeath.Infact,  &p!( inresponsetoEmilyMcIntyre'stheorythathersonhadbeenkilled '#* byBritishintelligence,thearticlenotedthat "federal x)$, investigatorsfamiliarwiththeValhallacasesaythereisno $+t&. evidencethatMcIntyrewasfingeredbyanyagentoftheUS,Irish,  orBritishgovernments"(emphasisadded).  \  ` OnJanuary29,1995,asecondarticleintheBostonGlobe X reportedthat"authoritiesintheUnitedStates"hadcalled   "ludicrous"anyclaimthat"theUSgovernmentnegligentlyallowed `  [McIntyre]tobekilled." Thestoryindicatedthatgovernment  \  officialswerenottheonlyoneswhomighthaveknownthatMcIntyre   wasaninformant,statingthat"[r]umorsthat[John]McIntyrewas d  talking[tothefederalgovernment]wererampant"andcitingEmily `  McIntyreassayingthatCustomsagentshad"openlytailed[her   son],andwereparkedoutsideherhomethelastnightshesawher h son."  d  ` Then,onDecember11,1996andJune14,1997,theBoston  Globepublishedtwomorearticlesreportingthatlawenforcement l officialsbelievedMcIntyrehadbeenkilledbytheWinterHill h Gang.TheDecember11article,whichquotedEmilyMcIntyre,stated  that"[f]ederalagentsbelieveMcIntyrewaskilledbyBoston p  gangsterswhosuspectedhimofinformingagainstthem." TheJune !l" 14articlewasmorespecific.IttheorizedthatBulgerhad "4$ compromisedtheValhallaoperation,aftertakingaheftyprofit $& fromit,bytippingofftheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA). <&!(  Relyingonwitnessstatementsandotherevidence,thearticle '8#* suggestedthat,afterwards,BulgerandFlemminonethelesstortured )$, McIntyretofindoutwhathehadtoldauthoritiesaboutthegun @+&. runningandmarijuanasmugglingoperations,andthenkilledhim,  disposingofhisbodyatsea. Neitherarticlemadeanymentionof \ FBIinvolvement. X  ` Ataroundthetimeofthesecondarticle,in1997,more   detailsoftherelationshipbetweenBulgerandFlemmiandtheirFBI `  handlerscametolightthroughtheprosecutionofFlemmiinthe  \  caseofUnitedStatesv.Salemme,91F.Supp.2d141(D.Mass.   1999).InSalemme,onJanuary10,1995,agrandjuryindicted d  BulgerandFlemmi,alongwithfiveotherswhoweremembersof `  eitherLaCosaNostraortheWinterHillGang,ofRICOconspiracy   andvariousotherfederalcrimes.Id.at301.Threemore h supersedingindictmentswereobtained,withthelastcomingonJuly d 2,1996.Id.at306.NoneoftheindictmentsmentionedMcIntyre's  disappearance,althoughseveralreferredtomurderscommittedby l BulgerandFlemmi. h  ` InApril1997,intheprocessofaddressingthe  defendants'motiontosuppresssomeelectronicsurveillance p  evidence,JudgeWolf,whowaspresidingovertheSalemmecase, !l" discoveredearlierfilingsinthecasebeforeamagistratejudge "$ thatsuggestedthatBulgerandFlemmiwereFBIinformants.Id.at t$& 308.Thisinformationraisedquestionsabout,interalia,whether  &p!( theFBIhadgivenBulgerandFlemmiimmunityfromprosecutionfor '#*  theirongoingcriminalconduct. x)$,  ` InaJune6,1997order,overtheFBI'sobjections,Judge   WolfrevealedthattheFBIhad,inresponsetoacourtorder, \ confirmedinaclosedhearingthatBulgerwasaninformant.United X Statesv.Salemme,978F.Supp.364,365(D.Mass.1997).The   orderalsorevealedthatFlemmiwasaninformant.Id.at373.In `  aJune25,1997affidavit,# XXXX-`#XXX XԀFlemmi# XXXX#XXX XԀstatedthatAgentMorrishad  \  assuredhimthatheandBulgercouldbeinvolvedinanycriminal   activitiesshortofmurderandwouldbeprotectedbytheFBI. d  Salemme,91F.Supp.2dat310.# XXXX#XXX XFlemmi'saffidavitwasnotsealed `  andanaccountofhisstatementswaspublishedthenextdayinthe   BostonGlobe. Severalmonthslater,onSeptember3,1997,Flemmi h submittedundersealamotiontodismiss,claiming,interalia, d thattheFBIhadpromisedhimimmunity.Id.at311.Themotion  wasunsealed,overgovernmentobjections,onSeptember10.Id. l   ` Severalmonthslater,on December5,1997,theBoston h Herald madepublic# XXXX?#XXX XԀthattheDepartmentofJusticehadconductedits  ownprobeintoBulgerandFlemmi'srelationshipwiththeir p  handlers.ThearticlereportedthatJudgeWolfhadsaidata !l" hearingthepreviousdaythattheOfficeofProfessional "$ Responsibilityhadlaunchedaninternalprobeandfound"no t$& evidenceofcontinuingcriminalconductwithinthestatuteof  &p!( limitations"byAgentsMorrisandConnolly. Somedetailsofthis '#* investigationwerelaterrevealedinJudgeWolf'sopinionin x)$, Salemme,issuedonSeptember15,1999: $+t&. 3,XX X,X` X30  InlateJune1997,theAttorneyGeneralestablisheda  taskforceofDepartmentofJusticeandFBIpersonnelto  investigatetheallegationsofmisconductraisedby \ Flemmiandthemotionstosuppress.Thattaskforce 2 conducteditsinvestigationinJulyandearlyAugust X 1997,andissuedaconfidentialreporttotheAttorney . General.Withtheagreementofthegovernment,thecourt   reviewedtheExecutiveSummaryofthatreportandsomeof   thedocumentsthattheinvestigationgeneratedinorder `  todecidecertainissuesconcerningdiscovery.... 6     7,X` X,XX X791F.Supp.2dat310.Nothingintherecordindicatesthatthe  2  underlyingfactsoftheOfficeofProfessionalResponsibility   investigationwereotherwisemadepublicatthetime.Butfromour :  reviewofthedocketintheSalemmecase,itisclearthatthe 6 governmentrepeatedlysought,ataroundthistime,tokeepFlemmi's  allegationsofgovernmentmisconductandthegovernment'sresponse > tothemunderseal.  :  ` JudgeWolfheldaseriesofevidentiaryhearingsfrom  JanuarytoOctober1998onthesubjectofFlemmi'sclaimof B immunity.Id.at312.Thesehearingswereopentothepublic. > EmilyMcIntyreattendedpartofahearingonApril15,1998. Inan  articlethenextday,theBostonHeraldreportedthatatthat F ! hearing,RobertStutman,theformerlocalchiefoftheDEA, !B# testifiedthat"agentsinhisoffice'swore'thattheFBI #% compromisedtheirFlemmiBulgerprobetothepointwherethepair's J% ' bureau'handler'wasunwelcomeatDEA'soffices." Stutman &F") admitted,however,thathehadnoproofofFBIwrongdoingandthat ($+  he"d[id]n'tknownow"if"theFBI[had]burn[ed]uson[the] j*%- jC j8XXdXXd8 j  investigation." NothingintherecordindicatesthatStutmanever  mentionedMcIntyreinhistestimony. x   ` Oneweeklater,onApril22,Morristestified,undera $t grantofimmunity,thathehadtoldConnollyinearly1982that   anotherFBIinformant,BrianHalloran,hadsaidthatBulgerand |  FlemmiaskedhimtomurderRogerWheeler.Id.at209.Morris ( x  testifiedthatConnollytoldhimthathehadpassedtheinformation $  ontoBulgerandFlemmi.Halloranwasmurderedshortlythereafter   onMay11,1982.TheBostonHeraldranastoryonApril23 ,|  summarizingMorris'stestimony.AswithStutman,nothingindicates ( thatMorrisevermentionedMcIntyreinhistestimony.   ` OnMay20,1998,anotherDEAagent,AlbertG.Reilly, 0 testifiedabouttheValhalla. TheBostonGlobesummarizedReilly's , testimonythenextdaywiththeheadline"DEAunabletolinkBulger  toIRAguns."Thestoryrecountedthat"authoritiesnowbelieved 4 thatBulgerhadtippedoffauthoritiestothegunsmuggling 0 operationandthatheandFlemmitorturedaQuincyman,John   McIntyre,whowassuspectedofcooperatingwiththeauthorities" 8!" (emphasisadded). Thestorydidnotsay,however,thattheFBIhad "4$ tippedoffBulgerastoMcIntyre'sidentityasaninformant.The $& articlealsostatedthatReillyhadtestifiedthathe,like <&!( Stutman,believedtheDEA'sinvestigationofBulgerandFlemmihad '8#*  beencompromisedbytheFBIbuthadnowaytoproveit.  )$,   ` InearlyJune1998,aftertheMay25,1998criticaldate   foraccrualoftheMcIntyreclaimshadpassed,RichardBergeronof \ theQuincyPoliceDepartmenttestifiedaboutMcIntyre'scooperation X anddisappearance.Id.at213.Asbestwecantell,Bergeron's   testimonywasthefirstpieceofevidencepresentedintheSalemme `  proceedingsthatprovideddirectinformationaboutMcIntyre's  \  disappearance.BergerontestifiedthatMcIntyrewas"petrified"of   thepeoplehewasimplicatingandthatMcIntyrewasnotthetypeof d  potentialwitnesswhosecooperationcouldbepubliclydisclosed. `  BergeronthensaidthathetoldFBIAgentKennedy# XXXX#XXX XthatMcIntyrehad   implicatedBulgerandhisassociatesintheValhallaoperation.He h testifiedthathehadarrangedforKennedyandaCustomsagentto d interviewMcIntyre.Id.at214.Kennedyhadtestifiedearlier,on  April14,1998,thatheandConnollyoftenexchangedinformation. l OtherevidencealsoindicatedthatKennedyhadparticipatedin h protectingBulgerandFlemmifrominvestigationonprevious  occasions.Id.But,becausethegovernment,apparentlyin p  violationofdiscoveryorders,didnotproduceKennedy'sreportsof !l" hisinterviewofMcIntyreuntilafterKennedyhadtestified, "$ Kennedywasneverquestionedaboutwhetherhehadpassedonthe t$& informationaboutMcIntyretoConnollyand,ifso,whetherConnolly  &p!( hadtoldBulgerandFlemmi.Kennedywasnotrecalledtothe '#*  witnessstandtoprovidethisinformation.Id. x)$,  ` DuringBergeron'scrossexamination,theprosecution   askedhimwhatindividuals,tohisknowledge,knewthatMcIntyre \ wascooperatingwithauthoritiesandmighthavepassedonthat X information.Whendefensecounselobjected,theprosecutionstated   thatitslineofquestioningwasinresponsetotheimplication `  that"itwastheFBIwhomayhaveleakedthis[informationto  \  BulgerandFlemmi]whenthere'sliterallyadozenpeople"other   thantheFBIwhocouldhavedoneso(emphasisadded). The d  prosecutionwasexplicitthattheevidencewassospeculativethat `  thecourt"shouldn'tinferthattherewassomeleakfromtheFBI   thatledtoMr.McIntyre'sdisappearance"(emphasisadded). The h prosecutionthenwentontoestablishthat,inadditiontotheFBI, d theQuincypolice,theCustomsService,andtheDEAallknewof  McIntyre'scooperation. Theprosecutionalsoestablishedthat l McIntyrehadspokentoauthoritiesaboutanumberof"notorious h criminals,"aswellastheIRA,"[a]llofwhomwouldhavehada  motivetomakehimdisappear."  p   ` JudgeWolfpublisheda260pageopinioninthe !l" SalemmecaseonSeptember15,1999,wellafterthecutoffdatefor "$ accrualofMcIntyre'sclaims.AstoMcIntyre'sdisappearance,he t$& concluded,  &p!( 3,XX X,X` X30  [T]hereiscircumstantialevidencetosuggestthat '#* KennedymayhavetoldConnollyaboutMcIntyre's (#+ cooperationandclaimsand,inview[of]theHalloran x)$, matter,reasontobeconcernedthatConnollymayhave N*%- toldBulgerandFlemmi.Theseissuescannot,however,be $+t&. resolvedonthepresentrecord.+J'/   7,X` X,XX X7Id.at21415.   ` McIntyre'sbodywasrecoveredonJanuary14,2000.Kevin \ Weeks,aBulgerassociate,ledlawenforcementtoMcIntyre's X makeshiftgrave.Flemmi,195F.Supp.2dat251n.45.    ` OnMay25,2000,McIntyre'sestatefiledanoticeoftort `  claimwiththeFBI.  \   ` OnSeptember27,2000,agrandjuryreturneda   supersedingindictmentofBulgerandFlemmithat allegedthatin d  OctoberorNovemberof1984,BulgerandFlemmilearnedthat `  McIntyrewascooperatingwiththeFBIandCustomsServiceregarding   Bulger'sinvolvementinboththeValhallaoperationandthe h importationofmarijuanabyboatintoBoston,and,asaresult, d kidnappedandmurderedMcIntyre. Theindictmentdidnotsayhow  BulgerandFlemmidiscoveredMcIntyre'scooperation.OnOctober l 11,2000,Connollywasindictedforhisroleinvariousmurders h committedbyBulgerandFlemmi,butnotforanyroleinMcIntyre's  murder.  p    ` OnMarch8,2001,McIntyre'sestatefiledsuitinfederal !l" districtcourt. McIntyre'sclaimwasthefirstadministrative "$ claimandfirstfederalactiontobefiledarisingfromtheFBI's t$& relationshipwithBulgerandFlemmi. OnOctober15,2001,the  &p!( UnitedStatesmovedtodismisspursuanttoFed.R.Civ.P.12(b)(1) '#*  onthegroundthatMcIntyre'sestatehadfailedtopresentits x)$, administrativeclaimswithintwoyearsofaccrual,asrequiredby  theFTCA,28U.S.C.2401(b). \   ` OnMarch31,2002,thedistrictcourtgrantedthemotion, X findingthattheclaimshadaccruedbeforeApril1998.Thecourt   reasonedthat,priortoApril1998,theMcIntyresclearlybelieved `  JohnMcIntyretobedeadandhadsufficientfactstosupporta  \  reasonableinferencethatBulgerandFlemmihadkilledhim,based   onlocalpressreportsthatMcIntyrewaslastseenwithNee,a d  Bulgerassociate,andthatBulgerrantheValhallaoperation. The `  courtalsodeterminedthattheMcIntyreshadenoughinformationto   formthetheorythat"theFBIwasatleastnegligentin[its] h handlingofBulgerandFlemmi." Thecourtreliedprincipallyon d (1)theFBI'sacknowledgmentin1997thatBulgerandFlemmiwere , informantsand(2)theApril15,1998hearing,attendedinpartby  EmilyMcIntyre,inwhichDEAAgentStutmantestifiedabouthis 4 suspicionsthattheFBIhadcompromisedaDEAinvestigationof 0 BulgerandFlemmi. Finaljudgmentwasenteredonmotionof   McIntyre'sestate. Theestatetimelyappealed.  8!"  3,XX X,X` X3B.  FactualandProceduralBackgroundRelevanttoWheeler  #P$ 7,X` X,XX X07 ` RogerWheeler,aTulsabusinessman,ownedWorldJaiAlai $ & (WJA),whichoperatedfacilitieswherespectatorscouldbetonJai t&!( Alaimatches.Salemme,91F.Supp.2dat208. JohnCallahan,who  (p#* hadtiestotheWinterHillGang,waspresidentofWJA.Id.  )%, WheelersuspectedthatCallahanwasskimmingmoneyfromWJAfor x+&. membersoftheWinterHillGang,includingBulgerandFlemmi.  WheelerfiredCallahanandbegananauditofWJA'sfinancial \ operations. Id.at209.Beforetheauditwascompleted,onMay X 27,1981, Wheelerwasshottodeathwhilesittinginhiscarinthe   parkinglotofaTulsacountryclub. Id.at20708. |   ` TheWheelermurderremainedunsolvedformanyyears.In ( x  thespringof1995,DavidandLawrenceWheeler,twosonsofRoger $  Wheeler,visitedtheFBI'sofficeinTulsatodeliversomeoftheir   father'srecordsrequestedbytheoffice.Theystatedthatthey ,|  wereunhappywiththelackofprogressintheinvestigation. ( AccordingtoDavidWheeler'saffidavit,FBIAgentJackHawkins  replied,"[I]fwedothat,wewillhavetogowherevertheevidence 0 mightleadus...andyouknow,itmightactuallytakeustosome , involvementonthepartofyourmother.Areyouwillingtosee  yourmothergotojail?" DavidWheelerinterpretedthisasa 4 threatintendedtodeterfuturecomplaintsabouttheFBI'slackof 0 progress.     ` TheTulsaWorldandtheDailyOklahomanpublishedat 8!" leasttwelvearticlesonWheeler'smurderbetween1995and1999. "4$ Atthetime,Patricia(Wheeler'swidow),Pamela(Wheeler's $& daughter),andLawrence(oneofWheeler'ssons)werelivingin <&!( Tulsa.David,alongwithanotherofWheeler'ssons,Mark,was '8#* livinginTexas. Patricia andDavid statedbyaffidavitthatthey )$, recalledreadingsomeoftheOklahomapresscoverage.Lawrence and @+&. Mark recalledreadingoneortwoarticles,andPamelasaidshedid  notreadanyofthem.  \  ` OnJanuary19,1995,theTulsaWorldpublishedastory X statingthatBrianHalloranhadtoldtheFBIthatJohnCallahan   offeredhimacontracttokillWheeler,butthatHalloranrefused `  theoffer.ThearticlenotedthatHalloranwasmurderedshortly  \  thereafterin1982.OnJuly11,1997,asproceedingsinthe   Salemmetrialweredeveloping,theTulsaWorldreportedthatBulger d  andFlemmiwere"potentialsuspects"inWheeler'smurderandthat `  FlemmihadexecutedanaffidavitstatingthatheandBulgerwere   informantsand"weregivenfreereignfromanFBIsupervisorto h commitanycrimeaslongastheydidnot'clipanyone.'" On d November9,1997,aTulsatelevisionstationreportedthatthe  Wheelerinvestigation"ha[d]beenheldupbytheFBI'sattemptsto l bringdowntheMafiainBoston"andthat"theFBIdidnotshare h informationithadaboutthedeathofRogerWheelerSenior." The  nextday,theTulsaWorldreportedthat"[i]nvestigatorssaidthat p  theprimesuspectsinWheeler'skillingturnedouttobetwohighly !l" placedmobinformants,workingwiththeBostonFBI"andthatthe "$ "BostonFBIprotectedtheirinformants,James'Whitey'Bulgerand t$& Steven[sic]'TheRifleman'Flemmi."   &p!(  ` OnMay10,1998,DavidWheelerwasinterviewedbyEd '#* BradleyonCBS's"60Minutes"program. Thefollowingexchangewas x)$, televised: @+&. 3,XX X,X` X30  Bradley:DavidWheeler,RogerWheeler'sson,sayshehad  troubleunderstandingwhyhisfather'smurderhad  remainedunsolvedforsolong.UntilhefoundoutBulger \ andFlemmiwereFBIinformants.2   0  Wheeler:We'vediscoveredthatallalongtheFBIhasbeen . inbedwiththeprimesuspectsinmyfather'smurder.    0  Bradley:SoyoubelievethattheFBIprotectedyour `  father'skillersandtriedtopreventthetruthfrom 6   comingout? \    0  Wheeler:Theynotonlyprotectedmyfather'skillers,   theytothisdayareprotectingmyfather'skillersand   theyaretothisdaywithholdinginformationfromthe d  police.Thisiseighteenyearsofcoveringupthecrime. :  Thisiseighteenyearsofbeinganaccessorytomurder.`    7,X` X,XX X7Atthecloseofthesegment,DavidWheeleralsosaid,"Intheend,   there'sonegroup,onegroupofpeople,thatweresupposedtohelp h us,andthatwastheFBI,andthosearetheverypeoplethat d betrayedus,thosearetheverypeoplethatcontinuetobetrayus  tothisday." l  ` Duringthesegment,Bradleysaidthatthe"extraordinary h relationshipbetweentheFBIandtwoorganizedcrimebosses,"  namelyBulgerandFlemmi,"mayhaveallowedtheFBIinformantsto p  getawaywithmurder."Thesegmentalsocontainedaninterviewof !l" HomicideSergeantMichaelHuffoftheTulsapolicedepartment,who "$ saidthattheBostonFBIhadfailedtoshareHalloran'sinformation t$& withlocalandfederalinvestigatorsinTulsaworkingonthe  &p!( Wheelerinvestigationandthatthisfailureconstituted '#* "obstructionofjustice."Bradleyalsointerviewedfivedetectives x)$, fromOklahoma,Florida,andConnecticut.Hestatedthatthese $+t&. detectivesbelievedtheWheelermurderremainedunsolved"because  BulgerandFlemmiwereprotectedbytheFBIwhiletheywere \ providinginformationontheItalianMafiainNewEngland."One X detective,DavidGreen,saidthattheFBIgaveBulgerandFlemmia   "licensetosteal"andthat"apparentlythatlicensegotalittle `  broaderandcoveredahomicide."  \   ` DavidWheelersaid,byaffidavit,thatwhenheaccused   theFBIofacoverupon"60Minutes,"hemeantonlythathehad d  previouslybeenunawareofBulgerandFlemmi'sstatusasinformants `  andthathe"feltasthoughtheFBIshouldhavesharedthis   informationwith[him]...longbeforethistime."Hesaidthat h hedidnotbelieveatthattimethattheFBIwasresponsibleinany d wayforhisfather'sdeathandthathehadnofactstosupportsuch  abelief.  l  ` Patricia andLawrence saidbyaffidavitthattheysaw h Davidon"60Minutes."Pamela andMark said,alsobyaffidavit,  theydidnotseeDavidon"60Minutes"# XXXX1#XXX XԀanddidnotdiscusstheshow   withDavidoranyoneelse# XXXX#XXX X.MarksaidthathewasawarethatDavid 8!" appearedontheshow,butPamelasaidthatshecouldnotremember "4$ ifshehadbeenawareofthatfactatthetime. TheWheelerssaid $& intheirrespectiveaffidavitsthattensionshadariseninthe <&!( familysinceRoger'smurderandthattheycommunicatedverylittle '8#* amongthemselves,particularlyconcerningthepainfulsubjectof )$, themurder.  @+&.  ` Followingthe"60Minutes"interview,DavidWheeleralso  gaveinterviewstotheBostonpress.OnMay12,1998,TheBoston \ HeraldreportedthatDavidWheelersaidthathe"hasalways X believedthat[formerFBIAgentPaul]Ricofacilitatedhisfather's   deliveryintooblivion"butthatheonlyrecently"discoveredthat `  oblivionmaywellhavehadnameslikeWhiteyandStevey."The  \  articlenotedthatDavidWheelersaidhisfatherthoughtRicomight   betryingtokillhim.ThearticledescribedRicoasFlemmi's"FBI d  mentor"andnotedthatRicohadrecruitedFlemmiasaninformant. `   OnJuly22,1998,theBostonGlobeinterviewedDavidWheelerand   describedhimas"nowbeliev[ing]theFBIhasobstructedthe h investigationintohisfather'smurder." Thearticlealso d summarizedthetestimonyofJohnMorrisattheSalemmehearingsin  April1998,notingthatMorris hadtestifiedthathetoldConnolly l thatHalloranhadimplicatedBulgerandFlemmiintheWheeler 4 murderinvestigationandthatConnollymayhavepassedthis 0 informationontoBulgerandFlemmi. OnSeptember29,1998,the   BostonGlobereportedJohnMartorano,amemberoftheWinterHill T!" gang,wasnegotiatingapleaagreementwithfederalprosecutors. #P$ DescribingDavidWheeleras"thesonofoneofMartorano'salleged $& victims,"thearticlequotedhimasstatingthathewouldapprove X&!( ofapleaagreementforMartoranobecause"[t]hepeoplehe'sgiving (T#* uparethepeoplewhohaveenjoyedtheprotectionoftheFBIfor )%, manyyearswhilecommittingheinouscrimes."  \+&. iW iee i   ` Byaffidavit,DavidWheelersaidthathehad"probably"  readthesearticles, butPatricia, Pamela, andLawrence saidthat \ theyhadnot,andMarksaidthathedidnotrecallwhetherheread X them.     ` Ataroundthesametime,inthesummerof1998,therewas `  TulsapresscoverageofdevelopmentsintheWheelermurder.OnMay  \  17,1998,theTulsaWorldpublishedanarticlewiththeheadline:   "WhenGmen,MobstersAreFriends/FBIIgnoredTipOffonTulsa d  Murder." ThearticlesummarizedMorris'stestimonyinApril1998, `  reportingthatMorrishadadmittedtoreceivingcashandgiftsfrom   BulgerandFlemmi,andtoworkingwithotheragentsto"shield[] h BulgerandFlemmifromprosecutionfor20yearsbecausetheywere d themostprizedsecretFBIinformantsinNewEnglandhistory." A  summaryofMorris'stestimonywasagainreportedinaJuly20,1998 l TulsaWorldarticleabouttheWheelermurder.Thearticlealso h reportedthatJohnMartoranohadagreedtocooperatewithfederal  prosecutorsandtotestifyagainstBulgerandFlemmiintheWheeler p  murdercase.  !l"  ` OnSeptember9,1999,aftertheWheelers'May11,1999 "$ cutoffdateforaccrualhadpassed,JudgeWolfunsealedJohn t$& Martorano'spleaagreement,inwhichMartoranoadmittedthathehad  &p!( murderedRogerWheeler. JudgeWolf'sSeptember15,1999decision '#* inSalemmedescribedaseriesofspecificincidentsintheearly x)$, 1980s,beforeWheeler'smurder,inwhichFBIagentsshieldedBulger $+t&. andFlemmifrominvestigation . 91F.Supp.2dat20206.Asto  Wheeler'smurder,JudgeWolffoundthatpartlybecauseof x irregularitiesintheFBI'shandlingofthefilesrelatingto $t Wheeler'smurder,"questionsremainregardingtherole,ifany,   playedbyFlemmiandBulgerintheWheeler,Halloran,andCallahan |  murders,andthefulldegreetowhichtheFBIinBostonhas,from ( x  1981untilrecently,attemptedtokeepanysuchrolefrombeing $  discernedanddemonstrated."Id.at213.Henotedthatapattern   offalsestatementsinFlemmi'sinformantfiledivertedattention ,|  fromFlemmi'scrimesandFBImisconduct,thatreportscontaining ( Halloran'sallegationsagainstBulgerandFlemmiwerenotindexed  accordingtousualFBIpolicyandhencecouldnotbediscovered 0 throughastandardsearchofFBIindices,andthattheFBIhad , disobeyeddiscoveryordersbyitslatedisclosureofrelevant  documents.Id.at154n.3. 4  ` OnDecember22,1999,JohnConnollywasindictedfor 0 racketeering. # XXXX"#XXX XAsupersedingindictmentwasreturnedonOctober11,   2000.ItchargedthatConnollyhadalertedBulgerandFlemmito 8!" theidentityofconfidentiallawenforcementinformants,tipped "4$ themofftovariouslawenforcementinitiatives,andfailedto $& reportinformationrelatingtothemthatwasmaterialtothe <&!( investigationofcriminalactivityintheBostonarea. Italso '8#*  chargedthatConnollyhadobstructedagrandjuryinvestigation )%, intoWheeler'smurderandtippedBulgerandFlemmitoHalloran's  cooperation.  \   ` # XXXX#XXX XOnSeptember27,2000,afederalgrandjuryreturnedan X indictmentchargingBulgerandFlemmiwithracketeering;twoofthe   predicateactsfortheracketeeringchargewerethemurderofRoger `  Wheeler# XXXX7#XXX XԀandtheconspiracytocommitthatmurder# XXXX|#XXX X.   \   ` TheWheelersfiledanoticeoftortclaimwiththeFBIon   May11,2001 . AftertheFBIfailedtorespond,theWheelersfiled d  suitinfederalcourtonMarch14,2002.AsintheMcIntyrecase, ,|   theUnitedStatesmovedtodismisspursuanttoFed.R.Civ.P. ( 12(b)(1)onthegroundthattheWheelershadfailedtopresent  theiradministrativeclaimswithintwoyearsofaccrual,as 0 requiredbytheFTCA,28U.S.C.2401(b).OnMarch31,2003,the , districtcourtgrantedthemotion,findingthattheWheelers'claim  accruednolaterthanMay10,1998,whenDavidWheelerappearedon 4 "60Minutes." ThecourtreasonedthatDavidWheeler'sstatements 0 showedthatheknewthatBulgerandFlemmiweresuspectedinhis   father'smurderandthattheymayhaveescapedinvestigationand T!" prosecutionforthecrimewiththeassistanceoftheFBI.The #P$ courtthenwentontosaythat"[i]tdoesnotmatterthatnotall $& theplaintiffsinthiscasewereasinformedasDavidWheeler" X&!( becausetheywereinpossessionofsufficientfactstoplacethem (T#* oninquirynotice. Finaljudgmentwasenteredonmotionofthe )%, Wheelers,whothentimelyappealed.  \+&. @88) II.    3,XX X,X` X3A.0  TheFTCAAccrualStandard x(#(# 7,X` X,XX XY7 ` TheFTCAprovides,inrelevantpart,that"[a]tortclaim @ againsttheUnitedStatesshallbeforeverbarredunlessitis  < presentedinwritingtotheappropriateFederalagencywithintwo   yearsaftersuchclaimaccrues."28U.S.C.2401(b).Becausethe D   FTCAisawaiverofsovereignimmunity,itisstrictlyconstrued. @  Skwirav.UnitedStates,344F.3d64,73(1stCir.2003).    ` Normally,atortclaimaccruesatthetimeofinjury. H  Gonzalez,284F.3dat288.InUnitedStatesv.Kubrick,444U.S. D 111(1979),theSupremeCourtcreateda"discoveryrule"exception  forFTCAclaimsinvolvingmedicalmalpractice.TheCourtheldthat L suchclaimsaccruewhenaplaintiffknowsofboththeexistenceand H thecauseofhisinjury.Seeid.at119202.TheCourt  determinedthataccrualdoesnotawaitthepointatwhicha P plaintiffalsoknowsthattheactsinflictingtheinjurymay L constitutemedicalmalpractice.Id.at122.Distinguishing   betweenignoranceofthefacts(ofinjuryoritscause)and T!" ignoranceoflegalrights,theCourtreasonedthataclaimant,once #P$ armedwithknowledgeofthefactofinjuryandtheidentityofthe $& partiesthatcausedtheinjury,isnolongeratthemercyofthe X&!( government.Atthatpoint,claimantscangotoothers,suchas (T#* doctorsorlawyers,whowilltellthemiftheyarevictimsof )%, malpractice.Id.󀀀Thesameisnotnecessarilytrueof_plaintiffs \+&. whoareignorantofthefacts,particularlywhenthegovernmentmay  beinpossessionorcontrolofthenecessaryinformation.# XXXX#XXX X \  ` Thiscourthasextendedthisdiscoveryruleto_FTCA_ X claimsoutsidethemedicalmalpracticecontext._Skwira_,344F.3d   at74;_Attallah_v.UnitedStates,955F.2d776,780(1stCir. `  1992).Mostcircuitsalsoapplyadiscoveryruletowrongfuldeath  \  actions.See_Skwira_,344F.3dat74(collectingcases).    ` Underthediscoveryrule,"aclaimaccrueswhenthe d  plaintiffdiscovers,orintheexerciseofreasonablediligence `  shouldhavediscovered,thefactualbasisforthecauseofaction."   Gonzalez,284F.3dat288.Thetestforwhetheraplaintiffshould h havediscoverednecessaryfactsisanobjectiveone.Id.at288 d 89.Welookfirsttowhethersufficientfactswereavailableto  provokeareasonablepersonintheplaintiff'scircumstancesto l inquireorinvestigatefurther."Aclaimdoesnotaccruewhena h personhasamerehunch,hint,suspicion,orrumorofaclaim,but  suchsuspicionsdogiverisetoadutytoinquireintothepossible p  existenceofaclaimintheexerciseofduediligence." !l" _Kronisch_v.UnitedStates,150F.3d112,121(2dCir.1998) "$ (citationomittedandemphasisadded).Onceadutytoinquireis t$& established,theplaintiffischargedwiththeknowledgeofwhathe  &p!( orshewouldhaveuncoveredthroughareasonablydiligent '#* investigation._Skwira_,344F.3dat77.Thenextquestionis x)$, whethertheplaintiff,ifarmedwiththeresultsofthat $+t&. investigation,wouldknowenoughtopermitareasonablepersonto  believethatshehadbeeninjuredandthatthereisacausal \ connectionbetweenthegovernmentandherinjury.Id.at78.# XXXXT#XXX XԀ# XXXX#XXX X X Definitiveknowledgeisnotnecessary.Id.# XXXX#XXX XԀ# XXXX#XXX XԀ# XXXX#XXX XThisinquiryishighly   factandcasespecific,asarethepertinentquestionstoask.# XXXX##XXX X `   ` In_Attallah_,forexample,theplaintiffslearnedin  \  September1982thatthedecomposedbodyoftheircourier,whohad   beentransportingalmost$700,000oftheirmoneytoPuertoRico, d  hadbeenfound.955F.2dat778.Overfouryearslater,two `  Customsagentswereindictedfortherobberyandmurderofthe   courier.Id.# XXXX#XXX XThecourtfoundthattheplaintiffshadfileda h timelyadministrativeclaimagainsttheUnitedStatesbecausetheir d claimaccruedwhentheCustomsagentswereindicted# XXXX #XXX X,notwhenthe  courier'sbodywasfound.Id.at780.Thecourtfocusedonthe l factthatasidefromtheindictment,theonlyinformationthatthe h plaintiffshadavailableaboutthewhereaboutsoftheircourierwas  aCustomsServicedocumentshowingthattheircourierhadbeen p  processedattheairportcustomsofficeandthenleftthepremises. !l" Id.Thecourtreasonedthatifittookthepoliceuntil1987to "$ discoversufficientinformationtobringchargesagainstthe t$& Customsagents,theplaintiffscouldnotbeexpectedtobemore  &p!( efficient.Id. '#* # XXXX #XXX X ` Anotherexampleisthe_Skwira_case,inwhichadivided x)$, court,inthreeopinions,foundthattheplaintiffshadfailedto $+t&. _fileatimelyadministrativeclaim.Skwira,344F.3d# XXXXa##XXX XԀat8386.# XXXX$#XXX XԀ  # XXXX %#XXX XThere,theclaimwasthataVAnursehadmurderedEdwardSkwira,a \ patientattheNorthamptonVAhospital,byinjectinghimwiththe X stimulantepinephrine.# XXXXe%#XXX XԀ# XXXXj&#XXX XThefactsconvincingtothemajorityonthe   issueofaccrualwereasfollows.Skwirawasadmittedtoa `  substanceabusetreatmentfacilityinWorcester,Massachusetts,in  \  earlyFebruary1996forthetreatmentofchronicalcoholismandon   February15wastransferredtoWardCoftheVAhospital,wherethe d  murderesswasworking.Id.at69.Despitetheabsenceofany `  reasontoanticipateheartproblems,hesufferedacatastrophic   cardiaceventlaterthatdayanddiedonFebruary18,withheart h ailmentslistedastheimmediatecauseofdeath.Id.Bythe d summerof1996,articlesbeganappearingintheNorthamptonlocal  pressdescribinganongoingcriminalinvestigationintothehigh l numberofsuspiciousdeathsinWardC,andtheadministratorwas h quotedasnotrulingoutfoulplay.Id.at68,80.BySeptember  orOctoberof1996,investigatorscontactedthefamiliesofsomeof p  thevictims,includingSkwira's,tovoicethegovernment's !l" "suspicions"aboutthedeathsandobtainedpermissiontoexhumeand "$ autopsythebodies.Id.at68.Skwira'sautopsyshowedthatthe t$& deathcertificatehadmisstatedthecauseofdeath.Id.Asthe  &p!( concurringopinionstated,atthatpoint"areasonablepersonwould '#* havebelievedthatsomekindofnegligenceormisconductby x)$, governmentemployeesatthehospitalmightwellunderlieEdward $+t&. Skwira'sdeath."Id.at85(Boudin,C.J.,concurring).Hadthe  plaintiffssoughtoutindependentlegalandmedicaladviceatthat \ point,theyshouldhavebeenabletodetermineinthetwoyear X periodwhethertofileanadministrativeclaim.SeeSkwira,344   F.3dat81.# XXXX&#XXX XThecourtobservedthattwoothervictims'families `  didfiletimelyclaims,whereastheSkwiraswaitedthreeyears  \  aftertheautopsyreportbeforefiling.Id.at82n.19.    ` Skwiraisinstructiveinthewaysinwhichitisboth d  likeandunlikethetwocasesatbar.# XXXXg/#XXX XThedifferencesareobvious. `  Unlikethevictimsinthecasesatbar,Skwirawasinthesole   custodyandcareofagovernmenthospitaland,overwhelmingly,the h mostlikelymalefactorwasoneofaverylimitedgroupof d governmentemployeesatthathospital.Allofthedeathsoccurred  inthesameplacewiththesamesmallcastofcharacters.See l UnitedStatesv.Gilbert,229F.3d15,18(1stCir.2000)(the h deathsinWardCoftheVAhospitaloccurredoverasixmonth  period).# XXXX1#XXX XTherewasalsocertaintythepatientsweredead,unlike p  inMcIntyre'ssituation.# XXXX3#XXX X !l"  ` Thechiefsimilaritybetweenthetwocasesatbarand "$ Skwiraisthattherewasagovernmentinvestigationintopossible t$& wrongdoinginallthreecases.# XXXX4#XXX XButthecircumstancesofthe  &p!( investigationhereweredifferentthaninSkwira.There,the '#* governmentcametothefamilywithitssuspicionsofwrongdoingat x)$, thehospitalandexplainedthefactualbasisforthosesuspicions# XXXX5#XXX X. $+t&. 344F.3dat68. # XXXX)7#XXX XThegovernmentthenhelpeddeveloptheevidenceof  wrongdoing,informingthefamilythatthecauseofdeathreported \ wasdifferentthanthatfoundinSkwira'sautopsy.# XXXX7#XXX XԀId.# XXXX8#XXX XBy X contrast,inthetwocasesatbar,thegovernmentdidnotinform   theplaintiffsofanyinvestigation,appearstohaveheldthefacts `  revealedinitsinvestigationconfidential,andultimatelyclaimed  \  tohavecleareditsagentsofwrongdoingbeforethecriticaldates   foraccrualpurposes.b #  5      # XXXX8#XXX X d   3,XX X,X` X3B.0  ApplicationtoMcIntyre'sClaims ` (#(# 7,X` X,XX XR;7 ` TheclaimsmadebytheestateofMcIntyrearebasedon ( twointerrelatedtheoriesofhowtheFBIcausedMcIntyre'sdeath:  (1)byleakinghisconfidentialinformantstatustoBulgerand 0 Flemmi,inviolationofaspecialdutyofnondisclosureowedto , himbythegovernment,# XXXX;#XXX XԀand(2)# XXXX=#XXX XbyprotectingBulgerandFlemmifrom  investigationandprosecution,thusenablingandemboldeningthem 4 tomurderhim.Asweunderstandthesecondtheory,itismeantto 0 buttressthefirsttheory;itisperhapsalsomeanttoserveasan   independentbasisforliability. #  6      ׀Thefirsttheory,whichwe 8!" understandtobethepredominantone,arisesoutofaspecial_duty "4$ thatthegovernmenthastoconfidentialinformantswhowouldbe  endangerediftheirinformantstatuswererevealedtoothers, \ particularlythosewhoseactivitiesarethesubjectofthe X informant'sdisclosures.TheFBIManualrequiresagentsto   exerciseconstantcaretoensurethataninformant'sidentityis `  notdisclosed,whetherintentionallyorinadvertently._Salemme_,91  \  F.Supp.2dat150;seealso_Leonhard_v.UnitedStates,633F.2d   599,614(2dCir.1980)("Theprocurementoftestimonyagainst d  allegedmembersoforganizedcrimewillnormallyrequire `  appropriateprotectionofboththeinformantandhisfamily.");# XXXX=#XXX X   SocialistWorkersPartyv.AttorneyGen.ofUnitedStates,458F. h Supp.895,907(_S.D.N.Y._Ԁ1978)("[_T]he_ԀFBIassertedthatitowed d thedutyofconfidentialitytotheinformantstoprotectthemfrom  embarrassmentandharm.")# XXXXC#XXX X,vacatedonothergrounds,InreAttorney l Gen.ofUnitedStates,596F.2d58(2dCir.1979).# XXXXE#XXX XԀBecausewefind h thattheplaintiffcouldnotreasonably# XXXXqF#XXX XԀbeexpectedtohave  discoveredthefactssupportingthefirsttheory# XXXXG#XXX XԀuntilafterMay p  25,1998,wefindthatthecasewasnotproperlydismissedand !l" thereforereverse.# XXXXG#XXX X "$  ` Theplaintiff'spredominanttheorydependsonthe t$& followingreasoning:  &p!(  (5h83"3"   ` 3I25h  1  .3  0   McIntyrewascooperatingwiththegovernmentin '#* itsinvestigationof_Bulger_Ԁand_Flemmi_,which x)$, imposed# XXXXhH#XXX XԀadutyontheFBI;3II݌$+t&. (# (# Ќ  _"3"   ` 3K25h  2  .3  0   McIntyrewasmurdered;3KK݌ (# (# Ќ  "3"   ` 3L25h  3  .3  0   BulgerandFlemmiwereresponsibleforthe \ murder; 3LL݌X (# (# Ќ  "3"   ` 3M25h  4  .3  0   McIntyrewasmurderedbecauseBulgerandFlemmi   learnedhewasinformingonthemtogovernment `  authorities;3MM݌ \  (# (# Ќ  "3"   ` 3O25h  5  .3  0   ItwasagentsoftheFBI,Connollyand/orMorris,   whotoldBulgerandFlemmithatMcIntyrewas d  cooperatingwiththeFBI.3OLO݌`  (# (# Ќ  Thedistrictcourtfocusedonthefirstthreepartsofthis   sequenceonly.Thisdidnotgofarenough.Thekeymissinglinks h arethefourthandfifthpoints.Wefocusonthefifth:whethera d reasonablepersonintheMcIntyres'position,afterconductinga  diligentinvestigation,wouldhaveuncoveredasufficientfactual l basistobelieve,beforeMay25,1998,# XXXXK#XXX XԀthat# XXXXzR#XXX XtheFBIwasthesource h oftheleaktoBulgerandFlemmi# XXXXR#XXX X.# XXXXOS#XXX XԀWeconcludethatheorshewould  nothave. p   ` CertainlybeforeMayof1998,theMcIntyrefamilyknewof !l" factsthatwouldpermitareasonablepersontobelievethatBulger "$ andFlemmiwereresponsibleforthekillingofJohnMcIntyrein t$& 1984 andthatBulgerandFlemmiwereFBIinformants.Inourview,  &p!( thatwasnotenoughtotriggeraccrual,inlightofthenatureof '#*  McIntyre'sclaims. x)$,  ` AJune1997BostonGlobearticle,describedinourreview   ofthefacts,reportedthatwitnessstatementsandotherevidence \ supportedtheconclusionthatBulgerandFlemmihadMcIntyre X kidnapped,torturedhimtofindoutwhathehadtoldthe   authorities,andthenmurderedhim.Implicitinthisreportwas `  thatBulgerandFlemmihadsomehowfoundoutMcIntyrewasan  \  informant.Butthearticleneverevenmentionedthepossibility   thattheFBIhaddisclosedthisinformationtoBulgerandFlemmior d  hadotherwisegivenitsimprimaturtothemurder. `   ` Furthermore,theMcIntyreswerealsofacedwiththe   government'saffirmativedenialsofanywrongdoinginthe h relationshipbetweenBulgerandFlemmiandFBIagentsMorrisand d Connolly.ThegovernmentrepeatedlydeniedwrongdoinginBoston  Globearticlesfrom1988through1995,andonearticlereported l thataninternalFBIinvestigationhadclearedthetwoagents. h Then,aDecember5,1997BostonHeraldarticlestatedthatthe  DepartmentofJustice# XXXXS#XXX X'sOfficeofProfessionalResponsibilityhad p  investigatedand"clearedtheFBIhandlers[MorrisandConnolly]of !l" [wrongdoinginvolving]informantgangstersWhiteyBulgerand "$ StephenFlemmi."FacedwithadenialofwrongdoingbytheFBI t$& itself,andlackinganybasistocontrovertthedenialotherthan  &p!( rumor,theMcIntyresdidnothaveareasonedbasistobelievethat '#* itwastheFBIthathadleakedMcIntyre'sidentityasaninformant x)$, toBulgerandFlemmi. $+t&.  ` Weturntothequestionwhethertherewaslater  informationbetweentheDecember5,1997denialofwrongdoingby \ theFBIandMay25,1998thatprovidednoticeofthatmissinglink. X ThedistrictcourtfoundsuchaneventbasedontestimonybyAgent   Stutman,theformerlocalchiefoftheDEA,intheSalemmehearings `  onApril15,1998. BecauseEmilyMcIntyreattendedpartofthose  \  hearings,thecourtattributedtoherknowledgeofStutman's   statementsthatheandagentsinhisofficesuspectedthattheFBI d  hadcompromisedtheirinvestigationofBulgerandFlemmibuthadno `  factstoconfirmtheirsuspicions.Evenassumingthatstatement   providedareasonedbasistobelievethattheFBIhadcompromised h theDEA'sinvestigation,perhapsbytippingBulgerandFlemmito d listeningdevicesorwarningthemofraids,itdoesnotprovidea  reasonedbasistobelievethattheFBIleakedMcIntyre'sinformant l statustoBulgerandFlemmi. h  ` Thegovernmentpointstoadifferentevent:anApril23,  1998BostonHeraldstoryreportingthatthepreviousday,Morris p  hadtestifiedthatin1982,hetoldConnolly,whointurntold !l" BulgerandFlemmi,theidentityofFBIinformantBrianHalloran, "$ whohadinformedauthoritiesthatBulgerandFlemmitriedtohire t$& himtokillRogerWheeler.Thegovernmentarguesthatthis  &p!( informationthattheFBIhadleakedtoBulgerandFlemmithe '#* identityofadifferentinformant,astoadifferentcrime,ata x)$, differenttimeprovidedsufficientfactsforareasonableperson $+t&. tobelievethatthesamethinghadhappenedtoMcIntyre.The  governmentarguesthatiftherewasevidenceBulgerandFlemmi \ killedHalloranbecausetheFBItoldthemHalloranwasan X informant,thenareasonablepersoncouldhaveinferredthatBulger   andFlemmialsokilledJohnMcIntyrebasedonasimilarFBIleak. `  Thegovernment'sanalogyoverreachesbothasamatteroflogicand  \  asamatteroffact.     ` # XXXXq[#XXX XEvenassumingarguendothattheBostonHeraldarticlewas d  enoughtoleadtheMcIntyrestosuspectthattheFBIleaked `  McIntyre'sidentity,andthustotriggeradutytoinquire,a   reasonablydiligentinvestigationwouldstillnothaverevealedthe h necessaryfactualpredicatefortheirclaimbeforetheaccrual d date.Mostavenuesofinvestigationwerecutoffbythe  possibilityofcriminalliabilityforanyFBIagentsandothers l involved.Attemptstogaininformationthroughdepositionswould h likelyhavebeenthwartedbyinvocationsoftheFifthAmendment  privilegeagainstselfincrimination.Andotherinformation p  suchastestimonybeforethegrandjuryorfactsdiscoveredinthe !l" governmentinvestigationwashiddenbehindaveilofsecrecy. "$ Inthissense,theMcIntyreshadevenlessaccesstocritical t$& informationthanmostFTCAplaintiffs.SeeKubrick,444U.S.at  &p!( 122(adoptingadiscoveryruleinpartbecause"thefactsabout '#*  causationmaybeinthecontroloftheputativedefendant, x)$, unavailabletotheplaintifforatleastverydifficultto  obtain").# XXXXCh#XXX X \   ` Withoutmorespecificinformationthanprovidedinthe X BostonHeraldarticle# XXXX6n#XXX X,areasonablepersoncouldnothavehada   basistoclaimthattheFBIbetrayedMcIntyre'scooperationto `  BulgerandFlemmi.BulgerandFlemmiapparentlymurderedpeople  \  formanyreasons.Someofthosepeoplewereinformants.But,   withoutmore,onecannotreasonablydeducefromavictim's d  informantstatus(1)thatBulgerandFlemmiknewthevictimtobe `  aninformant,(2)that,ifBulgerandFlemmiknewthevictimtobe   aninformant,theymurderedthevictimforthatreason,and(3) h mostimportantly,# XXXX o#XXX XԀthatevenifBulgerandFlemmimurderedthe d victimforbeinganinformant,thesourceoftheirinformationas  tothevictim'sinformantstatuswastheFBI.Onecouldnot l reasonablyinfer,forpurposesofFTCAaccrual,# XXXXq#XXX XԀfromMorris's h testimonyaboutHalloranthattheFBItoldBulgerandFlemmiabout  everyinformantintheirorganizationorthatBulgerandFlemmi p  killedeverypersonthattheyknewtobeinformingagainstthem, !l" regardlessofthecircumstances. "$  ` DrawingadirectparallelbetweenthemurdersofHalloran t$& andMcIntyreisparticularlydifficultbecausethesituationswere  &p!( sodifferent.Thecasesinvolveddifferentandunrelated '#* underlyingcrimesthattookplaceatdifferenttimesandin x)$, differentplaces:theWheelermurderwasin1981inOklahomaand $+t&. wasrelatedtocontrolofaJaiAlaiempire,whereastheValhalla  gunrunningoperationwasin1984inBostonfortheIRA.Moreover, \ HalloranarguablyposedagreaterthreattoBulgerandFlemmiasan X informantthanMcIntyredid.AsBergeronnoted,andasBulgerand   Flemmimightwellhavebeenaware,McIntyrewas"petrified"ofthe `  twoandwasunlikelytocomeforwardpubliclyor,byimplication,  \  totestify.McIntyrewasalowleveloperativeinagunrunning   operation,whereasHalloranwasahitmanwiththepowerto d  implicateBulgerandFlemmiformurder.Anotherfactualdifference `  isthattherewassomeindication,astheprosecutionitselfargued   inSalemme,thatMcIntyre'scooperationwasknowntothoseoutside h thegovernment,andthusthatBulgerandFlemmicouldhave d discoveredthisinformationfromsomesourceotherthantheFBI.  AJanuary29,1995BostonGlobearticlereportedthat"[r]umors l thatMcIntyrewastalking[tothefederalgovernment]wererampant" h atthetime.   ` Thegovernment'sownbehaviorfurtherundercutsits p  argumentherethatthereweresufficientfactsbeforeMay25,1998 !l" toreasonablyinferthatFBIhadbetrayedMcIntyre.Inresponseto "$ adefenseobjectionduringthecrossexaminationofBergeroninthe t$& SalemmehearingsonJune4,1998,theprosecutionsaidthat  &p!( "there'sliterallyadozenpeople"outsidetheFBIwhoknewof '#* McIntyre'scooperationandcouldhavepassedtheinformationto x)$, BulgerandFlemmi.TheprosecutorarguedthatJudgeWolf $+t&. "shouldn'tinferthattherewassomeleakfromtheFBIthatledto  Mr.McIntyre'sdisappearance"becausetheevidencewastoo \ speculative.That,ofcourse,isdirectlycontrarytotheposition X oftheUnitedStatesasstatedinthecaseatbar:thatbeforeMay   of1998,theMcIntyresnotonlyshouldhavedrawnexactlythat `  inferencebutshouldhaveactedonitbyseekinglegalandother  \  expertadviceaboutfilinganFTCAclaim.    ` IntheJune1998Salemmehearings,afterthecritical d  dateforaccrualpurposeshadpassed,theprosecutionalsosought `  toestablishinitsquestioningofBergeronthatMcIntyrehad   spokentoauthoritiesaboutanumberofnotoriousindividuals,as h wellastheIRA,"[a]llofwhomwouldhavehadamotivetomakehim d disappear."ThiscastsfurtherdoubtonwhetherBulgerorFlemmi  hadcausedMcIntyre'sdisappearance,makingevenmoreremotethe l inferencethattheFBIhadleakedMcIntyre'sidentityasan h informantandcausedhismurder.   ` ThisgovernmentpositioninJuneof1998issignificant p  forseveralreasons.Itshowsthattherewasarealbasisto !l" questionwhetheritwasatallreasonabletoinferthatConnolly "$ haddisclosedMcIntyre'sdualroletoBulger.Wehavenoreasonto t$& thinkthefederalprosecutor'spositioninSalemmewastakeninbad  &p!( faith.Theprosecution,whichhadaccesstoconfidential '#* informationandwasinpossessionoffarmorefactsthanmembersof x)$, thepublic,arguedtothecourtthatitcouldnotreasonablymake $+t&. suchaninference.TheMcIntyres,whowereinafarworseposition  toaccessorevaluateinformation,shouldnotberequiredhereto \ drawsuchaninference.SeeAttallah,955F.2dat780("Thepolice X didnothavesufficientinformationtobringchargesagainstthe   [relevantgovernmentofficials]until1987.Webelieve `  [plaintiffs]couldnothavebeenmoreefficient.").  \   ` Equallyimportantly,theprosecutor'spositioninJuneof   1998wasyetanotherexpressionbytheUnitedStatesinapublic d  forumthatConnollyhadnotleakedMcIntyre'sidentityandno `  wrongdoinghadoccurred.    ` OurdecisioninSkwirahurts# XXXX?s#XXX XԀratherthanhelps# XXXX#XXX XԀthe h government'sposition.TheUnitedStatesinSkwiratoldthe d plaintiffthattherewascausetoinvestigatesuspiciousdeathsof  patie# XXXX܉#XXX XntswhowerewithinthesolecustodyofaVAhospitalwhen l theydiedanddidnotdenywrongdoing.344F.3dat80.Here,the h governmentkeptconfidentialitsinvestigationofclaimsof  misconductbyConnollyandMorrisandultimatelyreportedin1997 p  thatitfoundnowrongdoing.EvenJudgeWolfhadgreatdifficulty !l" inpryingloosecoherentinformationaboutMcIntyre'sdeathbythe "$ dateofhisopiniononSeptember15,1999.JudgeWolfcommented t$& thatthequestionofwhethertheFBIdisclosedMcIntyre'sidentity  &p!( couldnot"beresolvedonthepresentrecord"becauseofthe '#*  government'sdelayeddisclosureofdocumentsanditsdesireto x)$, kOY. k k  avoidbringingtolightthecircumstancessurroundingMcIntyre's  death.Salemme,91F.Supp.2dat215. \   ` WereversethedismissaloftheclaimsbyMcIntyre's X estateandremand# XXXX#XXX X.    3,XX X,X` X3C.0  ApplicationtotheWheelerCase ` (#(# 7,X` X,XX X7 ` ThecutoffdatefortheaccrualoftheWheelers'claim, ( x  filedonMay11,2001,isMay11,1999.Thedistrictcourt $  concludedthattheirclaimaccruedonorbeforeMay10,1998when   RogerWheelerappearedon"60Minutes." ,|  e ` TheWheelercaseisbasedonafundamentallydifferent ( legaltheorythantheMcIntyrecase.UnliketheMcIntyrecase,  whichisbasedondutiesarisingfromthegovernment/informant 0 relationship,theWheelers'claimisnotbasedonanydirect , relationshipbetweenRogerWheelerandtheFBI.Thetheoryof  liabilityis,asaresult,muchmoreindirectthanthatinthe 4 McIntyrecase. 0  ` TheWheelershavestyledtheirMass.Gen.Laws.ch.229,   2and6wrongfuldeathclaimsagainsttheUnitedStatesasbased 8!" onbothdirectandvicariousliability.TheyassertthattheUnited "4$ StatesisvicariouslyliablefortheactionsofConnolly,Morris, $& andotheragents,whichprovidedBulgerandFlemmiwitha <&!( "protectiveshield"againstprosecutionandinvestigationthatgave '8#* thetwocriminalstheopportunitytocommitcrimesandemboldened )$, themtodoso,proximatelycausingWheeler'smurder.TheWheelers @+&. alsoassertthattheUnitedStatesisdirectlyliableforfailing  topreventWheeler'smurder,inlightoftheforeseeableriskthat \ BulgerandFlemmiwouldcontinuetoengageinviolentcriminal X activity.Inaddition,theWheelersassertageneralizedcount   againsttheUnitedStates# XXXX̏#XXX XԀforintentionalinflictionofemotional `  distressbasedonWheeler'smurder# XXXXh#XXX X.  \   ` FortheWheelers'claimstoaccrue,therehadtobefacts   availablethatwouldpermitareasonablepersontoconclude(1)that d  BulgerandFlemmiwereinstrumentalinthemurderofRogerWheeler; `  (2)thatBulgerandFlemmiwereinformantsfortheFBI;and(3)that   theFBIhadaspecialrelationshipwithBulgerandFlemmithat h protectedandencouragedthemintheircriminalactivity,including d Wheeler'smurder.   ` TheWheelersclearlyhadsufficientnoticeofthefirst l twosetsoffactsbeforetheMay11,1999accrualdate.OnApril h 22,1998,MorristestifiedthatBulgerandFlemmiwerevaluableFBI  informantsandthathewasafraidhehadsentHallorantohisdeath p  bytellingConnollythatHalloranwasallegingthatBulgerand !l" FlemmihadtriedtohirehimtokillWheeler.Morris'stestimony "$ onthispointreceivednationalpressattention.Itwassummarized t$& intwoTulsaWorldarticlesonMay17,1998andJuly20,1998and  &p!( inaJuly22,1998BostonGlobearticlethatquotedDavidWheeler. '#* Inaddition,aJuly20,1998TulsaWorldarticleandaSeptember29, x)$, 1998BostonGlobearticle,whichquotedDavidWheeler,bothreported $+t&. thatJohnMartoranowasnegotiatingapleaagreementwithfederal  prosecutorsandhadimplicatedBulgerandFlemmiintheWheeler \ murder.Inaddition,asthedistrictcourtfairlypointedout, X DavidWheelerstatedontheMay10,1998"60Minutes"showthat   BulgerandFlemmihadcausedhisfathertobemurdered,thatthetwo `  wereFBIinformants,andthattheFBIwas"inbed"withthetwo.  \   ` WhatprovesfataltotheWheelers'claimisthattheywere   alsoonnoticeofthethirdsetoffacts.Wesidestepthedispute d  aboutwhetherDavidWheelermeanthisstatementson"60Minutes"to `  indicatethattheFBIhadprotectedBulgerandFlemmifrom   prosecutionandthusenabledandemboldenedthemtomurderhis h father.Otherstatementsonthe"60Minutes"showshouldhavemade d clearthespecialrelationshipbetweentheFBIandBulgerand  Flemmi.EdBradleyreportedthatthe"extraordinaryrelationship" l betweentheFBIandBulgerandFlemmi"mayhaveallowed[them]to h getawaywithmurder."Adetectiveinterviewedforthesegmentwas  evenmoreexplicit,describingBulgerandFlemmiashavinga p  "license"fromtheFBI# XXXX #XXX Xtocommitcrimesthat"coveredahomicide." !l"  ` Inaddition,separatefromthe"60Minutes"show,there "$ wasnationalandlocalnewscoveragebeforethecriticaldate t$& describingtheFBI'sshieldingofBulgerandFlemmifrom  &p!( prosecution.Atleastsomeofthosearticlesshouldhavecaughtthe '#*  Wheelers'attention,becausetheyspecificallyreferencedRoger x)$, Wheeler'smurderandeven,inseveralinstances,quotedDavid  Wheeler. \   ` TwoTulsaWorldarticlesonJuly11,1997andJanuary9, X 1998,bothofwhichspecificallymentionedtheWheelermurder,   reportedthatFlemmiwasclaimingintheSalemmeproceedingsthat `  theFBIgavehimandBulgerimmunityfromprosecutionfortheir  \  ongoingcriminalactivitiesinexchangeforinformationabout   organizedcrimeactivities. TheJuly11articlespecificallynoted d  thatFlemmihadexecutedanaffidavitstatingthatheandBulgerhad `  beengiven"freereignfromanFBIsupervisortocommitanycrime"   shortofmurder.OnMay10,1998,thesamenightthatthe"60 h Minutes"segmentran,alocalTulsanewsstation,KOTV,reported d thattheFBIhadtippedBulgerandFlemmitoHalloran'scooperation  intheWheelermurderinvestigationandthatBostonFBIagentsmay l havetakenbribesfromBulgerandFlemmi.  h  ` Inthesummerof1998,twoTulsaWorldarticlesandone  BostonGlobearticlethatquotedDavidWheelerreportedthatMorris p  admittedthattheFBIhadshieldedBulgerandFlemmifrom !l" prosecutionfortwentyyearsbecausetheywereprizedinformants. "$ TheTulsaWorldarticlewasentitled"WhenGmen,MobstersAre t$& Friends/FBIIgnoredTipOffonTulsaMurder."Allthreearticles  &p!( specificallymentionedtheWheelermurder.Morris'stestimonywas '#* alsopickedupbythenationalpress,withcoverageinMayandJune x)$, of1998fromtheAssociatedPress,theSaltLakeTribune,the $+t&. lOY2 l l  CharlestonGazette&DailyMail,theL.A.Times,andtheSeattle  Times.  \  ` Inthesummerandfallof1998,followingthe"60Minutes" X segment,DavidWheelerhimselfdrewtheconnectionbetweenhis   father'smurderandtheFBI'sspecialrelationshipwithBulgerand `  FlemmiinhiscommentstotheBostonpress.InaMay12,1998# XXXX1#XXX X  \  articleheadlined"Dad'sexecutionmysterynomoretoanxiousson,"   theBostonHeralddescribedDavidWheelerassayinginaninterview d  thathe# XXXX^#XXX XԀ"alwaysbelieved"thatformerFBIagentPaulRico `  "facilitated"hisfather'smurderatthehandsofBulgerandFlemmi.    WheeleralsotoldtheBostonGlobeonSeptember29,1998thatJohn h Martorano'scooperationwouldexpose"peoplewhohaveenjoyedthe d protectionoftheFBIformanyyearswhilecommittingheinous  crimes." l  ` TheOklahomapressandtelevisioncoverage,the h informationrevealedon"60Minutes,"andDavidWheeler'sinterviews  withtheBostonpress# XXXXr#XXX XԀaresufficienttoestablishthatDavidWheeler p  wasclearlyonnoticebeforetheMay11,1999criticaldate# XXXXA#XXX X. !l"  ` Theissueiswhethertheotherfamilymembers,intheir "$ differentpositions,couldreasonablybeexpectedtobeawareof t$& thisinformation.# XXXX#XXX XThedistrictcourtfocusedonDavidWheelerand  &p!( attributedhisknowledgetoall.Wedisagreewiththatmethodology: '#* the"kneworreasonablyshouldhaveknown"questionmustbeasked x)$, individually# XXXX #XXX X,astotheinformationavailabletosomeoneineach $+t&. plaintiff'ssituation.Thereisadifferencebetween"knew"and  "shouldhaveknown."Aplaintiffcould,atleastintheory,have \ actualknowledgeofcriticalfactseventhoughheorshewouldnot# XXXXa#XXX X X otherwisebereasonablyexpectedtoknowthem# XXXXٹ#XXX X.# XXXX]#XXX XԀAstowhethera   plaintiff"reasonablyshouldhaveknown"criticalfacts,theinquiry `  isanobjectiveone:whetherareasonablepersonsimilarlysituated  \  totheplaintiffwouldhaveknownthenecessaryfacts.SeeSkwira,   344F.3dat80(the"degreeofknowledgeofinjuryandcausethat d  wouldpromptareasonablepersontotake...protectivesteps `  willvarywiththecircumstancesofthecase");cf.Rodriguez   Narvaezv.Nazario,895F.2d38,41n.5(1stCir.1990)(describing h asimilarconstructiveknowledgetest,usedtodetermineaccrualof d federalcivilrightsclaims,aswhether"areasonablyprudentperson  similarlysituated"shouldhaveknownthenecessaryfacts). l  ` Wherethereareseveralplaintiffsandtheydonotlive h inthesamegeographicalarea,andpublicnoticeoftheunderlying  factsisrestrictedtocertainareas,geographyisafactortobe p  considered.Geographymaybeparticularlyrelevantwhere,ashere, !l" noticeisbasedonlocaltelevisionandpresscoverage.Similarly, "$ where,ashere,somemembersofthefamilyhaveactualnoticebut t$& othersdonot,theissueofhowstrongthefamily'stiesareandhow  &p!( frequentlytheycommunicatecanberelevant.Aplaintiffwhois '#*  estrangedfromothermoreknowledgeablefamilymembersis x)$, differentlysituatedthanonewhospeakswithhisorherfamily  everyday. \   ` Despitethisleeway,therecordhereestablishesthateach X oftheWheelershadavailablesufficientfactstoraisesuspicions   provokingareasonablepersontoinquirefurther.SeePhillips `  ExeterAcademyv.HowardPhillipsFund,Inc.,196F.3d284,288(1st  \  Cir.1999)(thiscourt"mayaffirmthejudgmentforanyindependent   reasonmademanifestintherecord").HadtheWheelersinquired d  further,therequisitefactswerepresentintheBostonandOklahoma `  televisionandpresscoverage# XXXX#XXX XԀtoallowareasonablepersontoinfer   acausalconnectionbetweentheFBI'sactionsandRogerWheeler's h murder.# XXXX#XXX X d  ` PatriciaWheeler(Roger'swidow)sawthe"60Minutes"  programinMay1998andsomeoftheOklahomapressarticles;they l weresufficientatleasttotriggeradutytoinquirebeforetheMay h 11,1999criticaldate# XXXX#XXX X,painfulasthesubjectwastoher.Thesame  isessentiallytrueofLawrenceWheeler,oneofRoger'ssons. p   ` PamelaWheelerNorberg(Roger'sonlydaughter)didnotsee !l" the"60Minutes"segment.Shehasstatedbyaffidavitthatshedid "$ notreadanyofthepresscoverageintherecordonthepainful t$& subjectofherfather'smurder,andthatsheisestrangedfromher  &p!( brothersandcommunicateswiththemonlyinfrequently.Whileher '#* claimpresentsaclosercase,wefindthatshehadadutytoinquire x)$, basedonlocalandnationalpresscoverage."[W]hereeventsreceive $+t&. ...widespreadpublicity,plaintiffsmaybechargedwithknowledge  oftheiroccurrence."UnitedKlansofAm.v.McGovern,621F.2d \ 152,154(5thCir.1980)(nationalnewscoverageovernetworks, X wire,andnewspapersreportedthatdefendantheldpressconference   admittingfactssupportingtheclaim);seealsoHughesv.Vanderbilt `  Univ.,215F.3d543,548(6thCir.2000)(front-pagestoriesintwo  \  localnewspapersandamajortelevisionnetworkgaveriseto   constructiveknowledge,eventhoughplaintiffsaidshedidnotsee d  thecoverage).Althoughwerecognizethatthequestionofwhether `  areasonablepersoninPamela'spositionwouldhavereadnews   coverageisafactintensiveinquiryandcansometimesbedifficult h toresolveonamotiontodismiss,q #  7      ׀wefindthat,onthefactsof d thiscase,therecordissufficienttoestablishnotice.Localnews  coverageinTulsa,wherePamelalived,wasextensiveandmentioned l RogerWheelerspecificallybyname,oftenintheleadparagraphof h thestory.Furthermore,nothingintherecordshowsthatPamelawas  estrangedfromhermother,whodidwatchthe"60Minutes"showand p   readatleastsomepresscoverage.AreasonablepersoninPamela's !l" situationwouldhavebeenprovokedtoinquirefurther;hadshedone  so,shewouldhavefiledaclaimearlier.# XXXX#XXX X  \   ` MarkWheeler,theyoungestson,livesinTexasanddidnot X seethe"60Minutes"show,althoughhewasawarethathisbrother   wouldbeappearingonit.Hestatedbyaffidavitthathereadonly `  oneortwoofthearticlesintheTulsapressandthathe  \  communicatesonlyinfrequentlywithhisfamilybecauseoftensions   arisingfromhisfather'smurder.Hepresentsanevenclosercase d  thanPamelabecausehelivedinTexasandthetelevisionandpress `  coverageintherecordappearedmostlyineitherBostonorTulsa   sources.Butwefindthathetoohadadutytoinquire,whichif h pursued,wouldhaveledhimtofilehisclaimearlier.Hewasaware d ofthe"60Minutes"showand,byimplication,ofnationalnews  coverageofhisfather'smurder.HehadaccesstoTulsanews,as l demonstratedbyhisreadingofatleastoneortwoarticlesinthe h Tulsanewspapersonthesubjectofhisfather'sdeath,soifhehad  inquiredfurther,hecouldhavelearnedthenecessaryfactsthrough p  thatmedium.# XXXXO#XXX X !l"  ` Theclaimofequitabletollingofthetwoyearlimit "$ fails,totheextentthatsuchaclaimiscognizableagainstthe t$& government# XXXX#XXX XԀatall.r #  8      ׀ItistruethattheFBIhadalonghistoryof  &p!( denyingthatBulgerandFlemmiwereinformants,thattherewasany  "special"relationshipbetweentheFBIandthetwo,andthenthat \ anyimproprietyresultedfromtherelationship.Forpurposesof X equitabletolling,however,thegovernment'sdenialsweresuperseded   whenMorristestifiedinApril1998intheSalemmehearingsthathe `  andConnollyshieldedBulgerandFlemmifromprosecutionandthat  \  theymayhavebeenresponsibleforHalloran'sdeath.   @!!( III.  d   ` ThedismissaloftheclaimagainsttheUnitedStatesin ,|  theMcIntyrecaseis reversed andthecaseisremandedforfurther ( proceedingsconsistentwiththisopinion.Thedismissalinthe  Wheelercaseis affirmed .# XXXX# L @*