ÿWPC¤! §¸x“GøKÃÌóO‰ëXŽLõúë´zNãM®Ì÷&·¨O°L"ƒ(Û_!ˆúJK–—$´äqrÈh»òi>‹Š§³™›;º\¾’ ü@[ÞY.Ž§¹·CÍÜ*>Ù¹Ør Ó—tóºUÑÁÈþA)ë&"µ¸?öu&³ÑÓWÀ<¬ÍÅ ùÔ@lCǽ^P"ŽfÎ>µÇäÚ ì×~hP8n<&t˜=Š'-s¨ÆÿoÚ2t§â‚oøˆz›÷tÑoØPcÖl¼ëùà Ι¥idïÚÿ£Ð/-ªøÆmN™ß„zÙÓ¢p:mÆ­EÏt ŠÊ‚âì‘ܱã”%_½‹¼¥@Þ xu9<)º¾:¥c„Û˜SïàO×éò( UTd/ˆÀt;3œAbmC%ùjLµ,…,ÈiÛG¯¸Šæÿ‘~W"ç™<0 Áh Ù`SÉ0V/%ü?1}wž$¯f)ò  ‡ãBú‡•ÐS4´ c0­ü\éRhža²Ôé„x–ægµ70qË.ôšÃ…ßÀ”¾âK¢uUD­ájç@¹îqvú'ÏLOßIs'›(‹ú•uYáfϼÁÆ„D'¬V9“±}JDmÏkŽïÒeÇ‚Ó§è}2 Ð=Ó(#Á0 %ñ 0 D÷ 0G;U:‚ 0 ¨¼U 8dnTœNðUNòUF@ ^ † w’ 4– ª ¹ E» f½ a¿ mÓ ê nXò NJ bL UBT  – ¤Ÿ ^C¡¶º—p"‘)ͺºººº B‡!˜HP LaserJet 5Ü,,,,Ü0X(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó(ß $¡¡Ô€X—çXXXÔ<þ6X9`("Courier NewTT(F:2Dþ$¤¤Ý ƒß !ÝÔ€XöXXXÔÝ  ÝÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó<4šÛ 9Z+‹ Courier New «<þ6X9`("Courier NewTTXXxþ6X@ÉDQX@<þ6X9`(CourierTTXXwþ6X@ÉüQX@vÖr Z‹6Times New Roman Regular<4šÛ 9Z+‹.Courier New RegularAp”2s fqç0s?,}›backup3|xøÀTABLE AÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ «<þ6X9`("Courier NewTTXXxþ6X@ÉDQX@<þ6X9`(*Courier 12pt10cpiXXxþ6X@ÉJQX@ - ù-<þ6X9`(*Courier 12pt10cpi ÿÝ ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€A€daughter€also€testified€that€he€stopped€smoking€because€ofÐ ° Ða€price€increase€in€May€2002. šÝ ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€At€oral€argument,€appellants'€attorney€stated€that€they€noÐ ° Ðlonger€were€pursuing€their€negligence€claims;€the€failure„to„warnÐ †Ö Ðand€design€defect€claims€thus€remain€only€as€strict€liabilityÐ \¬ Ðcauses€of€action.€ TÝ ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€On€the€second€day€of€her€deposition,€about€four€months€afterÐ ° Ðshe€first€was€deposed,€she€reported€that€she€had€in€the€interimÐ †Ö Ðchecked€"some€issues"€of€the€newspapers€El€Imparcial€and€El€VoceroÐ \¬ Ðand€also€had€reviewed€the€catalog€of€the€national€archive€movieÐ 2‚ Ðsection,€where€she€uncovered€one€agricultural€documentary€aboutÐ X Ðgrowing€tobacco€in€Puerto€Rico. Ý ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€During€her€deposition,€she€was€unable€to€cite€any€specificÐ ° Ðinstances€of€such€confusion€and,€upon€questioning€by€defenseÐ †Ö Ðcounsel,€agreed€that€two€apparently€translated€articles€shown€toÐ \¬ Ðher€from€El€Mundo€that€had€been€published€in€1954€and€1955€wouldÐ 2‚ Ðhave€been€understood€as€linking€smoking€and€cancer.€ ¬Ý ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€We€note€as€well€that€Ferrer's€report€was€not€sworn,€whichÐ ° Ðdiminishes€its€potency€as€probative€evidence.€€òòSeeóó€òòÔ_ÔCarmonaÔ_Ôóó€v.Ð †Ö ÐòòToledoóó,€215€F.3d€124,€131€(1st€Cir.€2000)€("Documents€supporting€orÐ \¬ Ðopposing€summary€judgment€must€be€properly€authenticated.€.€.€.€'ToÐ 2‚ Ðbe€admissible€at€the€summary€judgment€stage,€"documents€must€beÐ X Ðauthenticated€by€and€attached€to€an€affidavit€that€meets€theÐ Þ. Ðrequirements€of€Rule€56(e)."'");€òòYoungóó€v.€òòCity€of€Providenceóó,€301Ð ´  ÐF.€Supp.2d€163,€177€(Ô_ÔD.R.I.Ô_Ô€2004),€òòÔ_Ôaff'dÔ_Ô€in€partóó,€òòÔ_Ôrev'dÔ_Ô€in€partóó€òòandÐ Š Ú Ðremanded€byóó€òòóó2005€WL€826073€(1st€Cir.€Apr.€11,€2005)(declining€toÐ ` ° Ðcredit€expert's€report€on€the€assumption€that€it€was€not€affirmedÐ 6 †  Ðunder€oath€by€means€of€"an€affidavit€or€any€other€swornÐ  \  Ðtestimony").€€Our€conclusion€on€common€knowledge€does€not,€however,Ð â 2  Ðdepend€on€this€flaw,€and€Ferrer€in€any€event€reviewed€her€researchÐ ¸  Ðduring€a€lengthy€deposition. Ý ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Appellants€claim€in€their€brief€that€Puerto€Rico€utilizes€aÐ ° Ð"more€stringent"€approach€to€the€common€knowledge€doctrine,Ð †Ö Ðrequiring€a€finding€in€this€case€that€consumers€were€aware€notÐ \¬ Ðsimply€that€cigarette€smoking€is€hazardous€to€health€but€of€"theÐ 2‚ Ðspecific€connection€between€smoking€and€lung€cancer€(the€diseaseÐ X Ðthat€caused€decedent's€death)€and/or€the€addictive€nature€ofÐ Þ. Ðcigarettes."€€To€the€extent€this€is€a€correct€statement€of€PuertoÐ ´  ÐRico€law,€an€issue€we€do€not€reach,€òòóóit€does€not€affect€ourÐ Š Ú Ðconclusion€because€Ô_ÔMartnezÔ_Ô'€analysis€met€that€standard.òòóó€€€€€ Ý ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Nor€are€appellants€aided€by€the€fact€that€the€packageÐ ° Ðwarnings€were€in€English,€a€language€decedent€did€not€speak.€€HisÐ †Ö Ðexposure€to€the€label€information€was€inevitable€given€the€evidenceÐ \¬ Ðthat€he€regularly€watched€the€evening€news,€and€he€presumably€wasÐ 2‚ Ðexposed€to€the€information€as€well€through€word„of„mouth. ‡Ý ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€The€district€court€also€relied€on€preemption€doctrine€toÐ ° Ðdismiss€appellants'€claims.€€As€our€discussion€so€far€fullyÐ †Ö Ðresolves€the€issues,€we€see€no€need€to€engage€in€additionalÐ \¬ Ðanalysis. ÃÝ ƒDþ$ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÓ  Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Section€4307€provides,€in€relevant€part:€"Any€person€whoÐ ° Ðdefrauds€in€the€substance,€quality€or€quantity€of€the€thing€heÐ †Ö Ðdelivers€by€virtue€of€an€obligation€in€order€to€secure€an€undueÐ \¬ Ðprofit€for€himself€or€a€third€party€shall€be€punished€.€.€.€." dÝ ƒß !ÝÔ€XðøXXXÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑTRXà3Ø'Xà3Ø' Letter3Ø'ÿ3Ø'TÑÑ ? ÑÙ*ƒ !ÙÔ€ X;ÂXXXðøÔÔ€ °÷^°X X;ÂÔò òÓ  ÓÓ  ÓUnited€States€Court€of€AppealsÔ€ „O„° °÷^ÔÐ ° ÐFor€the€First€Circuitó óÔ€ „J„„ „OÔÔ€ XðøX„ „JÔÐ „Ô ÐÓÓÌÌßA€') °°` dE< ` AßÐ  à ÐÌNo.€04„1695Ð u Å ÐÌà@¼¼ìàVIRGINIA€PRADO€ALVAREZ;€Ô_ÔMAYRAÔ_Ô€JANETTE€GARCIA€PRADO;€ˆÐ ! q ÐÓ  ÓÔ_ÔEDGARDOÔ_Ô€GARCIA€PRADO;€ORLANDO€GARCIA€PRADO;€Ð ÷ G  ÐÔ_ÔIVELLISEÔ_Ô€GARCIA€PRADO;€FRANCISCO€GARCIA€PRADO;€Ð Í   ÐJAVIER€GARCIA€PRADO;€CARMEN€ROSA€Ô_ÔADORNOÔ_Ô;€Ô_ÔJOHAMÔ_Ô€GARCIA€Ô_ÔADORNOÔ_Ô,Ð £ó  ÐÓåÓÌà@ˆˆìàPlaintiffs,€Appellants,ˆÐ OŸ  ÐÌà@tt)ìàv.ˆÐ ûK  ÐÌà@| | ìàÔ_ÔR.J.Ô_Ô€REYNOLDS€TOBACCO€COMPANY,€INC.,ˆÐ §÷ ÐÌà@<< ìàDefendant,€Appellee.ˆÐ S£ ÐÌßA€') °°` dE<þ` AßÐ ÿO ÐÌà@œ œ ìàAPPEAL€FROM€THE€UNITED€STATES€DISTRICT€COURTˆÐ ä4 ÐÌà@¨ ¨ ìàFOR€THE€DISTRICT€OF€PUERTO€RICOˆÐ à ÐÌà@¼¼ìà[Hon.€Jaime€Ô_ÔPierasÔ_Ô,€Jr.,€òòSenior€U.S.€District€Judgeóó]ˆÐ <Œ ÐÌßA€') °°` dE<ç` AßÐ è8 ÐÌà@„„'ìàBeforeˆÐ Í ÐÌÓ  Óà@@((ìà€Ô_ÔSelyaÔ_Ô,€òòCircuit€Judgeóó,Ð yÉ! ÐCoffin,€òòSenior€Circuit€Judgeóó,Ð O Ÿ" Ðand€Ô_ÔLipezÔ_Ô,€òòCircuit€Judgeóó.Ð %!u# ÐÌÌßA€') °°` dE<¦#` AßÐ §#÷& ÐÌÓ  ÓÓ  Óà  àòòHerbert€Murielóó€with€whom€òòÔ_ÔAmarilysÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔArochoÔ_Ô„Ô_ÔMaldonadoÔ_Ôóó€was€onÐ Œ$Ü( Ðbrief€for€appellants.Ð b%² ) Ðà  àòòRobert€H.€Ô_ÔKlonoffÔ_Ôóó€with€whom€òòPaul€R.€Ô_ÔReichertÔ_Ôóó,€òòJones€Dayóó,Ð 8&ˆ!* ÐòòSalvador€Ô_ÔAntonettiÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔZequeiraÔ_Ôóó,€òòLuis€A.€Oliveróó,€òòRosalie€Ô_ÔIrizarryÔ_ÔÐ '^"+ ÐÔ_ÔSilvestriÔ_Ôóó,€and€òòFiddler,€Gonzalez€&€Rodriguez,€Ô_ÔP.S.C.Ô_Ôóó€were€on€briefÐ ä'4#, Ðfor€appellee.Ð º( $- ÐÌÌÔ*‹ƒ'ddd Xdd Xdd X°(#°(#‹ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ+  ÔÐ <+Œ&0<+Œ& ‹‹ÐÓë ÓÐ SI +ð&1 ÀÇâ@38462„„‰ÀÇâ@‰‹‹SÐÌâ âApril€21,€2005Ð v,Æ'3 ÐÐ RHCL-œ(4" ÀÇâ@38462 ÀÇâ@ ‹‹RÐâ âÐ,"  +ð&5 ? ,ÐÔ_ÔÙ* !ÙÓÓÑ  ÑÑ€ÑÑ8€'‰XXdÈdÈ8ÑÓo[°X°` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#€%Ø'0*ˆ,à.813è5@8˜:ð<H? A°œXoÓà  àò òCOFFIN,€òòSenior€Circuit€Judgeóó.ó ó€€Francisco€Garca€Lð;ðpez€beganÐ ° Ðsmoking€in€1960,€at€age€25,€and€continued€the€habit€for€the€next€42Ð xÈ Ðyears,€ultimately€smoking€three€packs€of€Winston€cigarettes€eachÐ $t Ðday.€€He€died€in€October€2002,€three€months€after€being€diagnosedÐ Ð  Ðwith€lung€cancer.€€His€surviving€family€members€brought€thisÐ | Ì Ðdiversity€action€against€the€cigarette€manufacturer,€R.J.€ReynoldsÐ ( x  ÐTobacco€Co.,€claiming€that€smoking€was€a€substantial€factor€in€hisÐ Ô$  Ðillness€and€death.€€Plaintiffs€sought€to€recover€damages€based€onÐ €Ð  Ða€variety€of€tort€and€other€Commonwealth€law€theories,€includingÐ ,|  Ðfailure€to€warn€and€defective€design.€€The€district€court€dismissedÐ Ø( Ða€failure€to€warn€claim€and€granted€summary€judgment€for€defendantÐ „Ô ÐReynolds€on€all€other€claims.€€After€careful€scrutiny€of€theÐ 0€ Ðrecord,€we€affirm€substantially€for€the€reasons€articulated€by€theÐ Ü, Ðcourt.Ð ˆØ Ðà@àà$ìàI.€òòBackgroundóóˆÐ 4„ Ðà  àDecedent€Garca€had€only€a€sixth€grade€education€and€could€Ð à0 Ðread€little€Spanish€and€no€English.€€Although€he€did€not€watch€muchÐ ŒÜ  Ðtelevision,€several€family€members€testified€in€depositions€that€heÐ 8!ˆ" Ðdid€regularly€view€the€evening€news.€€His€wife€and€at€least€four€ofÐ ä"4$ Ðhis€children€also€testified€that,€at€various€points€during€theÐ $à& Ðyears€Garca€smoked,€they€urged€him€to€stop€because€of€the€healthÐ <&Œ!( Ðrisks€posed€by€cigarettes.€€According€to€the€undisputed€facts€theÐ è'8#* Ðparties€jointly€submitted€to€the€district€court,€Garca's€wife€andÐ ”)ä$, Ðdaughter€had€"years€ago€.€.€.€talked€about€how€the€Decedent€wasÐ @+&. Ðsmoking€too€much."€€His€wife€acknowledged€that,€when€she€first€saw€Ð ° Ðhim€smoking,€she€warned€him€that€it€could€be€bad€for€his€health.Ð \¬ Ðà  àThe€family€reported€one€or€two€attempts€by€Garcia€to€stopÐ X Ðsmoking€by€using€nicotine€gum€as€a€substitute.€€His€son,€JavierÐ ´  ÐGarca€Prado,€testified€that€he€gave€his€father€one€pack€of€theÐ ` ° Ðgum,€and€that€the€attempt€lasted€about€two€days€and€resulted€inÐ  \  Ðreduced€smoking€during€that€time.€€A€daughter,€Ivellise€GarcaÐ ¸  ÐPrado,€said€she€bought€him€both€nicotine€gum€and€patches€once€heÐ d´  Ðhad€developed€a€cough€and€was€feeling€ill;€she€said€he€used€the€gumÐ `  Ðand€it€reduced€his€smoking€"a€little,"€but€he€refused€to€use€theÐ ¼  Ðpatches.€€Another€daughter,€Mayra€Janette€Garca€Prado,€testifiedÐ h¸ Ðthat€her€father€stopped€using€the€gum€given€to€him€by€her€sisterÐ d Ðbecause€"there€were€no€results."€Decedent's€grandson,€Joham€GarcaÐ À ÐAdorno,€who€lived€with€his€grandparents,€testified€that€hisÐ l¼ Ðgrandfather€used€the€patches€once€and€that€he€stopped€smoking,€butÐ h Ðhe€did€not€remember€for€how€long.Ð Ä Ðà  àAnother€son,€Edgardo€Garca€Prado,€also€noted€his€father's€useÐ pÀ  Ðof€the€nicotine€gum,€but€said€that€he€never€completely€stoppedÐ !l" Ðsmoking.€€Edgardo€testified€that€he€"would€tell€[his€father]€toÐ È"$ Ðstop€smoking€every€day€and€he€would€pay€no€attention."€€StillÐ t$Ä& Ðanother€son,€Orlando,€testified€that,€when€family€members€orÐ  &p!( Ðfriends€would€tell€his€father€that€smoking€was€harmful,€he€wouldÐ Ì'#* Ðsay€"that€we€all€have€to€die€some€time€from€something€.€.€.€.€HeÐ x)È$, Ðalways€had€the€same€answer."€€Decedent's€brother,€Demetrio€GarcaÐ $+t&. ÐLopez,€testified€that€he€had€been€telling€his€brother€that€smokingÐ ° Ðwas€harmful€since€about€1970.€€Demetrio€said€he€did€not€know€hisÐ \¬ Ðbrother's€perception€of€the€health€risks€of€smoking,€noting,€"[t]heÐ X Ðthing€is€that€he€would€not€pay€any€attention€to€anybody,€so€it€justÐ ´  Ðdidn't€matter€to€him."Ð ` ° Ðà  àGarca's€wife,€Virginia€Prado€Alvarez,€testified€that,€in€MayÐ  \  Ð2002,€her€husband€stopped€smoking€because€the€price€of€cigarettesÐ ¸  Ðincreased,׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€and€he€could€no€longer€afford€to€buy€them.€€He€becameÐ d´  Ðbedridden,€and,€according€to€his€wife,€"[h]e€was€feeling€very€sickÐ `  Ðbecause€he€wasn't€smoking."€€He€was€experiencing€both€abdominalÐ ¼  Ðpain€and€a€dry€cough,€and€medical€tests€ultimately€revealed€a€rightÐ h¸ Ðupper€lung€mass€that€was€diagnosed€as€inoperable€cancer.€€HeÐ d Ðdeteriorated€rapidly€and€died€in€October€2002€at€the€age€of€68.Ð À Ðà  àAppellants€filed€suit€in€June€2003,€claiming€that€Garca'sÐ l¼ Ðillness€and€death€were€caused€by€his€smoking€Winston€cigarettes,Ð h Ðwhich€are€manufactured€by€appellee€R.J.€Reynolds.€€They€allegedÐ Ä Ðnegligence€and€strict€liability€claims€under€Puerto€Rico€law€forÐ pÀ  Ðfailure€to€warn€and€design€defect,€claims€for€fraudulentÐ !l" Ðmisrepresentation€and€concealment,€and€a€claim€for€violation€ofÐ È"$ ÐArticle€189€of€the€Puerto€Rico€Penal€Code,€33€P.R.€Laws€Ann.€ððÐ t$Ä& Ðâ â4307,€which€prohibits€"[f]raud€in€[the]€delivery€of€[a]€thing."Ð  &p!( Ðà  àThe€district€court€dismissed€the€post„1969€failure„to„warnÐ ° Ðâ âclaims€based€on€preemption€by€the€Federal€Cigarette€Labeling€andÐ \¬ ÐAdvertising€Act,€15€U.S.C.€ðððð€1331„1341,€and€it€subsequentlyÐ X Ðgranted€summary€judgment€on€the€remaining€claims.€€The€courtÐ ´  Ðconcluded€that€plaintiffs€had€failed€to€establish€that€ordinaryÐ ` ° Ðconsumers€were€unaware€of€the€health€risks€of€cigarette€smokingÐ  \  Ðduring€the€relevant€time€period,€undermining€both€the€design€defectÐ ¸  Ðand€the€pre„1969€failure„to„warn€claims.€€The€court€further€ruledÐ d´  Ðthat€plaintiffs€failed€to€adduce€evidence€of€a€design€defect€or€toÐ `  Ðoffer€evidence€that€the€decedent's€injuries€were€proximately€causedÐ ¼  Ðby€Reynolds'€failure€to€warn.€€The€court€rejected€the€fraud€claims,Ð h¸ Ðòòinteróó€òòaliaóó,€for€lack€of€evidence€of€false€statements€heard€orÐ d Ðreasonably€relied€on€by€decedent,€and€it€concluded€that€the€ArticleÐ À Ð189€claim€suffered€from€dispositive€deficiencies.Ð l¼ Ðà  àOn€appeal,€appellants€challenge€each€of€the€district€court'sÐ h Ðsummary€judgment€rulings.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð Ä Ðà@¤¤#ìàII.€òòDiscussionóóˆÐ pÀ  Ðà  àWe€review€the€district€court's€grant€of€summary€judgment€deÐ !l" Ðnovo.€€òòCruz€Vargasóó€v.€òòR.J.€Reynolds€Tobacco€Co.óó,€348€F.3d€271,€280Ð È"$ Ð(1st€Cir.€2003).€€Although€we€draw€all€reasonable€inferences€inÐ t$Ä& Ðfavor€of€the€nonmoving€party,€òòid.óó,€that€party€must€respond€to€aÐ  &p!( Ðproperly€supported€motion€with€sufficient€evidence€to€allow€aÐ ° Ðreasonable€jury€to€find€in€its€favor€"with€respect€to€each€issue€onÐ \¬ Ðwhich€[it]€has€the€burden€of€proof,"€òòDeNovellisóó€v.€òòShalalaóó,€124Ð X ÐF.3d€298,€306€(1st€Cir.€1997).€€òòSeeóó€òòalsoóó€òòRochester€Ford€Sales,Inc.óóÐ ´  Ðv.€òòFord€Motor€Co.óó,€287€F.2d€32,€38€(1st€Cir.€2002).€€With€thatÐ ` ° Ðstandard€in€mind,€we€turn€to€our€examination€of€appellants'€claims.Ð  \  Ðà  àA.€òòThe€Role€of€Common€KnowledgeóóÐ ¸  Ðà  àAs€the€district€court€observed,€appellants€may€not€prevail€onÐ d´  Ðeither€the€common€law€failure€to€warn€or€the€design€defect€claimsÐ `  Ðunless€they€can€show€that€the€ordinary€consumer€was€unaware€of€theÐ ¼  Ðdangers€of€smoking.€€òòSeeóó€òòCruz€Vargasóó,€348€F.3d€at€275€("[A]Ð h¸ Ðmanufacturer€cannot€be€held€liable€under€either€strict€liability€orÐ d Ðnegligence€for€failure€to€warn€of€a€danger€commonly€known€to€theÐ À Ðpublic.");€òòAponte€Riveraóó€v.€òòSears€Roebuckóó,€44€P.R.€Offic.€Trans.€1,Ð l¼ Ð7,€144€D.P.R.€830€(1998)€("[A]€manufacturer€need€not€warn€of€aÐ h Ðhazard€if€the€average€consumer€ordinarily€has€knowledge€of€theÐ Ä Ðdangers€of€the€product.");€òòAponte€Riveraóó,€44€P.R.€Offic.€Trans.€atÐ pÀ  Ð6,€144€D.P.R.€830€(citing€ðð€402A€of€the€Restatement€(Second)€ofÐ !l" ÐTorts,€comment€i,€which€states€that€a€product€is€defective€only€ifÐ È"$ Ðit€is€"dangerous€to€an€extent€beyond€that€which€would€beÐ t$Ä& Ðcontemplated€by€the€ordinary€consumer€who€purchases€it,€with€theÐ  &p!( Ðordinary€knowledge€common€to€the€community€as€to€itsÐ Ì'#* Ðâ âcharacteristics").Ð x)È$, Ðà  àBoth€parties€sought€to€establish€their€position€on€commonÐ ° Ðâ âknowledge€through€expert€evidence,€but€Reynolds€filed€a€motion€toÐ \¬ Ðexclude€the€testimony€of€plaintiffs'€proposed€expert,€Marly€FerrerÐ X ÐMontalvo,€claiming€òòinteróó€òòaliaóó,€that€she€lacked€the€requisiteÐ ´  Ðeducation€and€experience€to€qualify€as€an€expert.€€Although€theÐ ` ° Ðdistrict€court€did€not€explicitly€rule€on€this€motion,€it€did€notÐ  \  Ðrefer€to€Ferrer's€report€in€its€summary€judgment€decision,€relyingÐ ¸  Ðentirely€on€the€common€knowledge€conclusions€of€Reynolds'€expert,Ð d´  ÐLuis€Martnez„Fernndez.€€The€court's€silence€seems€to€us€to€implyÐ `  Ðrejection€of€plaintiffs'€expert€evidence,€a€ruling€that€would€beÐ ¼  Ðsubject€to€review€only€for€abuse€of€discretion.€€òòSeeóó€òòKumho€TireÐ h¸ ÐCo.,€Ltd.óó€v.€òòCarmichaelóó,€526€U.S.€137,€152€(1999);€òòGen.€Elec.€Co.óóÐ d Ðv.€òòJoineróó,€522€U.S.€136,€138„39€(1997);€òòCurrieróó€v.€òòUnited€Techs.Ð À ÐCorp.óó,€393€F.3d€246,€251€(1st€Cir.€2004).€€In€any€event,€as€weÐ l¼ Ðshall€explain,€even€under€de€novo€review€we€would€conclude€thatÐ h ÐFerrer's€presentation€is€inadequate,€particularly€in€light€ofÐ Ä ÐMartnez'€detailed€affidavit,€to€permit€a€jury€to€find€forÐ pÀ  Ðplaintiffs€on€the€issue€of€common€knowledge.Ð !l" Ðà  àIn€òòCruz€Vargasóó,€we€observed€that€the€"common€knowledge"Ð È"$ Ðdefense€is€assessed€objectively€and,€"despite€the€nomenclature,€itÐ t$Ä& Ðis€a€technical€question€involving€methods,€financing,€and€sourcesÐ  &p!( Ðof€research€beyond€the€competence€of€lay€determination,€at€leastÐ Ì'#* Ðwhen€pertaining€to€history€forty€or€fifty€years€removed€from€theÐ x)È$, Ðtime€of€trial."€€348€F.3d€at€277.€€In€performing€its€gatekeepingÐ $+t&. Ðfunction€in€assessing€proffered€expert€evidence,€a€court€mustÐ ° Ðconsider€"whether€the€putative€expert€is€'qualified€by€"knowledge,Ð \¬ Ðskill,€experience,€training,€or€education."'"€€òòEd€Peters€JewelryÐ X ÐCo.óó€v.€òòC€&€J€Jewelry€Co.óó,€124€F.3d€252,€259€(1st€Cir.€1997);€òòseeóóÐ ´  Ðòòalsoóó€òòDaubertóó€v.€òòMerrell€Dow€Pharms.,€Inc.óó,€509€U.S.€579,€592€(1993)Ð ` ° Ð("relaxation€of€the€usual€requirement€of€first„hand€knowledge€.€.Ð  \  Ð.€is€premised€on€an€assumption€that€the€expert's€opinion€will€haveÐ ¸  Ða€reliable€basis€in€the€knowledge€and€experience€of€hisÐ d´  Ðdiscipline");€òòPoulis„Minottóó€v.€òòSmithóó,€388€F.3d€354,€359„60€(1stÐ `  ÐCir.€2004);€Fed.€R.€Evid.€702.€€Ferrer's€qualifications€to€serve€asÐ ¼  Ðan€expert€were€marginal,€at€best.€Ð h¸ Ðà  àAt€the€time€of€her€report,€Ferrer€possessed€only€a€bachelor'sÐ d Ðdegree€in€history,€and€most€of€her€research€experience€wasÐ À Ðirrelevant€to€the€issue€of€common€knowledge€of€the€health€risks€ofÐ l¼ Ðsmoking.€€Her€master's€thesis€(written€but,€at€the€time€of€herÐ h Ðreport,€not€yet€presented)€related€to€the€history€of€the€RepublicÐ Ä Ðof€Haiti,€and€her€most€recent€work€was€as€an€archivist€on€aÐ pÀ  Ðcollection€of€documents€relating€to€public€works€in€the€Ð !l" ÐCommonwealth.€€€As€a€graduate€student€in€2001,€she€presented€aÐ È"$ Ðpaper€on€Haiti€at€a€Puerto€Rican€Historians€Congress.€€OtherÐ t$Ä& Ðexperiences€included€about€two€years€teaching€high€school€studentsÐ  &p!( ÐPuerto€Rican€and€Latin€American€history,€researching€the€history€ofÐ Ì'#* Ðthe€paso€fino€horse€in€Puerto€Rico,€working€as€a€cultural€tourÐ x)È$, Ðguide€in€Old€San€Juan,€and€assisting€a€university€professor€withÐ $+t&. Ðresearch€on€neo„colonial€history,€particularly€in€the€Caribbean,Ð ° Ðbut€excluding€Cuba€and€Puerto€Rico.€€Toward€the€end€of€that€year€ofÐ \¬ Ðresearch,€she€did€her€only€directly€relevant€work:€collectingÐ X Ðmaterials€about€tobacco€advertising€in€Puerto€Rico.€€Her€particularÐ ´  Ðassignment€was€to€focus€on€religious€and€gossip€magazines;€in€herÐ ` ° Ðdeposition,€she€described€this€work€as€photocopying€information,Ð  \  Ðwithout€analysis.Ð ¸  Ðà  àIn€sum,€to€grant€the€status€of€expert€to€one€at€the€outset€ofÐ d´  Ðan€academic€career,€with€such€a€variegated€and€unfocused€record€ofÐ `  Ðscholarly€efforts€and€minimal€attention€to€analysis,€would€threatenÐ ¼  Ðthe€effective€functioning€of€the€gatekeeper€process.€€ExpertÐ h¸ Ðwitnesses€are€"permitted€wide€latitude€to€offer€opinions,"€òòDaubertóó,Ð d Ð509€U.S.€at€592,€and€"'[e]xpert€evidence€can€be€both€powerful€andÐ À Ðquite€misleading€because€of€the€difficulty€in€evaluating€it,'"€òòid.óóÐ l¼ Ðat€595€(quoting€Weinstein,€"Rule€702€of€the€Federal€Rules€ofÐ h ÐEvidence€is€Sound;€It€Should€Not€Be€Amended,"€138€F.R.D.€631,€632Ð Ä Ð(1991)).€€That€a€testifying€expert€thus€should€have€achieved€aÐ pÀ  Ðmeaningful€threshold€of€expertise€seems€beyond€debate.Ð !l" Ðà  àReynolds'€expert,€Martnez,€was€considerably€more€qualified€inÐ È"$ Ðevery€relevant€respect.€€A€history€professor€since€1983,€he€earnedÐ t$Ä& Ðhis€doctoral€degree€from€Duke€University€in€1990€and,€at€the€timeÐ  &p!( Ðof€his€affidavit,€was€a€professor€of€history€and€Puerto€Rican€andÐ Ì'#* ÐHispanic€Caribbean€Studies€at€Rutgers€University.€€Author€of€sevenÐ x)È$, Ðbooks€and€monographs€and€more€than€twenty€articles€and€essays,€heÐ $+t&. Ðalso€has€given€more€than€thirty€lectures€on€Latin€AmericanÐ ° Ðhistorical€topics€at€colleges€and€universities.€€Among€otherÐ \¬ Ðscholarly€awards,€he€received€in€2000€the€Lydia€Cabrera€Award€ofÐ X Ðthe€Conference€on€Latin€American€History.€€He€has€taught€a€varietyÐ ´  Ðof€courses€on€Latin€American,€Caribbean€and€United€States€history,Ð ` ° Ðand€the€course€subject€matter€has€included€"the€role€of€tobacco€inÐ  \  ÐCaribbean€and€Latin€American€culture,€economy€and€society."€Ð ¸  ÐMartnez'€extensive€professional€involvement€included€serving€asÐ d´  Ðchair€of€the€Caribbean€Studies€Committee€for€the€Conference€onÐ `  ÐLatin€American€History.Ð ¼  Ðà  àThe€two€experts'€proposed€evidence€also€differed€markedly.€€InÐ h¸ Ða€seven„page€report€based€on€approximately€130€hours€of€work,Ð d ÐFerrer€reported€that€she€had€reviewed€the€bulletin€and€magazine€ofÐ À Ðthe€Puerto€Rican€Medical€Association€from€1930€through€1970,Ð l¼ Ðreports€of€the€Department€of€Public€Health€and€the€Commissioner€ofÐ h ÐEducation,€and€a€series€of€movies€developed€by€the€Department€ofÐ Ä ÐEducation€to€address€various€social€problems€in€Puerto€Rico.€€SheÐ pÀ  Ðstated€that€she€investigated€the€newspaper€El€Mundo€from€the€1930sÐ !l" Ðthrough€1985€and€found€"some€coverage€of€the€health€problems€causedÐ È"$ Ðby€cigarette€use,"€but€her€report€gives€no€specific€citations€toÐ t$Ä& Ðarticles€other€than€to€state€that€she€had€found€"approximately€15Ð  &p!( Ðarticles€[in€1964]€on€different€subjects€relating€to€tobacco,€someÐ Ì'#* Ðof€which€included€health€problems€that€may€be€caused€by€smokingÐ x)È$, Ðcigarettes."€€She€acknowledged€that€her€research€was€not€yetÐ $+t&. Ðcomplete,€noting€that€she€was€still€investigating€severalÐ ° Ðmagazines,€including€Readers€Digest,€which€she€noted€was€publishedÐ \¬ Ðin€Spanish€beginning€in€December€1940.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð X Ðà  àBased€on€the€limited€materials€she€reviewed,€FerrerÐ ´  Ðnevertheless€concluded€that€"the€research€on€the€effects€of€tobaccoÐ ` ° Ðuse€and€cigarette€smoking€was€only€beginning€in€the€1950s€andÐ  \  Ð1960s,"€and€she€observed€that€pervasive€cigarette€advertisingÐ ¸  Ð"rendered€futile€any€educational€attempt€to€minimize€the€use€ofÐ d´  Ðcigarette€products."€€She€further€observed€that€much€of€theÐ `  Ðinformation€about€smoking€that€was€available€to€Puerto€Ricans€wasÐ ¼  Ðtranslated€from€English,€and€noted€that€"many€times€the€basic€ideasÐ h¸ Ðand€concepts€are€lost€in€translation."׃”×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€She€emphasized€that€thisÐ d Ðlanguage€difficulty€was€exacerbated€by€the€high€percentage€ofÐ À Ðilliteracy€among€Puerto€Rico's€residents.€€She€concluded€thatÐ l¼ Ðdecedent€could€have€had€no€knowledge€of€nicotine€addiction€or€theÐ h Ðhealth€risks€of€smoking€because€of€the€ambiguous€nature€of€theÐ Ä Ðinformation€available€to€him.€€These€conclusions€were€framedÐ pÀ  Ðgenerally,€and€none€was€supported€by€specific€citations€toÐ ° Ðsources.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð \¬ Ðà  àBy€contrast,€Martnez€reported€in€his€31„page€affidavit€a€wideÐ X Ðvariety€of€materials€that€he€had€examined.€€Among€other€sources,€heÐ ´  Ðreviewed€weekly€magazines,€island„wide€daily€newspapers,€PuertoÐ ` ° ÐRican€and€national€health€publications,€Puerto€Rican€laws€relatingÐ  \  Ðto€tobacco,€smoking,€cigarettes€and€health€instruction;€educationÐ ¸  Ðmaterials,€including€health€education€courses€and€school€texts;Ð d´  Ðreligious€and€church€publications;€polling€and€survey€data;Ð `  Ð"materials€related€to€popular€culture";€and€various€governmentÐ ¼  Ðdocuments.€€His€conclusions€were€annotated€with€112€footnotesÐ h¸ Ðidentifying€specific€sources.€€In€addition€to€written€materials,€heÐ d Ðstated€that€he€considered€"the€role€of€oral€tradition,€which€isÐ À Ðparticularly€strong€in€Puerto€Rico."Ð l¼ Ðà  àBased€on€his€research,€Martnez€opined€"to€a€reasonable€degreeÐ h Ðof€historical€certainty"€that€throughout€the€decedent's€lifetimeÐ Ä Ðthe€general€public€received€an€"abundance€of€information"€on€theÐ ° Ðhealth€risks€of€smoking€and€the€difficulty€some€smokers€encounterÐ \¬ Ðin€attempting€to€quit.€€He€thus€concluded€that€there€has€beenÐ X Ð"widespread,€pervasive€common€knowledge€throughout€the€twentiethÐ ´  Ðcentury€that€cigarette€smoking€can€cause€serious€life„shorteningÐ ` ° Ðdiseases,€such€as€lung€cancer,€emphysema,€hypertension,€and€heartÐ  \  Ðdisease."€€He€further€reported€common€knowledge€that€cigaretteÐ ¸  Ðsmoking€"can€be€habit€forming,€addictive,€and/or€very€difficult€forÐ d´  Ðsome€to€quit."Ð `  Ðà  àMore€persuasive€than€these€general,€perhaps€overbroad,Ð ¼  Ðconclusions€were€his€more€particular€references€to€sources€ofÐ h¸ Ðpublic€information€in€the€critical€decade€of€the€1950s,€immediatelyÐ d Ðbefore€the€decedent€started€smoking.€€For€example,€his€affidavitÐ À Ðcited€nine€articles€related€to€smoking€and€health€that€appeared€inÐ l¼ ÐòòSelecciones€del€Reader's€Digestóó€between€March€1950€and€May€1959.€Ð h ÐHe€reported€that€one€of€them,€published€in€September€1954,€notedÐ Ä Ðthat€"'13€unrelated€studies€have€been€done€on€the€relationshipÐ pÀ  Ðbetween€cancer€and€tobacco€in€five€differen[t]€countries€.€.€.€allÐ !l" Ðthese€researchers€reached€the€same€conclusion:€lung€cancer€appearsÐ È"$ Ðmore€frequently€among€smoker[s]€than€among€non„smokers.'"€(citingòòóóÐ t$Ä& Ð"Lo€que€se€sabe€del€cigarillo€y€el€cncer,"€òòSelecciones€delÐ  &p!( ÐReader's€Digestóó,€September€1954).€€He€stated€that€another€article,Ð Ì'#* Ðpublished€in€February€1953,€referenced€a€study€concluding€thatÐ x)È$, Ð"'From€the€age€of€45€onward,€the€danger€of€acquiring€the€illnessÐ $+t&. Ð[lung€cancer]€increases€in€direct€proportion€to€the€amount€ofÐ ° Ðtobacco€smoked€.€.€.€.'"€€(citingòòóó€"Cncer€por€cajetillas,"Ð \¬ ÐòòSelecciones€del€Reader's€Digestóó,€February€1953).€€He€also€citedÐ X Ðmore€than€a€dozen€articles€in€the€newspaper€òòEl€Mundoóó€during€theÐ ´  Ð1950s€referring€to€smoking€and€health,€including€specifically€the€Ð ` ° Ðrelationship€between€smoking€and€cancer,€and€he€pointed€to€similarÐ  \  Ðcoverage€in€the€early€1960s€in€both€òòEl€Mundoóó€and€the€òòSan€Juan€Staróó.Ð ¸  Ðà  àAccording€to€Martnez,€the€issue€of€addiction€also€receivedÐ d´  Ðspecific€attention€in€both€periodicals€and€newspapers.€€He€citedòòóó€aÐ `  Ð1952€article€in€òòEl€Mundoóó€that€noted€the€difficulties€of€quittingÐ ¼  Ðsmoking€and€that€"the€seductive€qualities€of€tobacco€are€doubtlessÐ h¸ Ðowing€to€the€effect€of€the€nicotine€it€contains."€€(citingòòóó€"SobreÐ d Ðcaf€y€tabaco,"€òòEl€Mundoóó,€April€24,€1952).€€He€stated€that€otherÐ À Ðreferences€to€the€difficulty€of€quitting€smoking€appeared€inÐ l¼ Ð"[p]opular€and€widely€circulating€magazines"€such€as€òòSeleccionesÐ h Ðdel€Reader's€Digestóó€and€òòAlma€Latinaóó,€and€the€footnote€correspondingÐ Ä Ðto€that€statement€listed€twelve€sources€(including€the€nineÐ pÀ  ÐòòReader's€Digestóó€articles€noted€above)€addressing€that€topic€and/orÐ !l" Ðthe€general€issue€of€smoking€and€health,€including€the€link€to€lungÐ È"$ Ðcancer.€€Martnez€also€pointed€to€newspaper€advertisements€forÐ t$Ä& Ð"stop€smoking€methods"€and€"highly€publicized"€anti„smokingÐ  &p!( Ðcampaigns€in€the€1960s€and€1970s€that€included€educationalÐ Ì'#* Ðworkshops€to€help€smokers€quit€ð!ð€messages€that€implicitly,€if€notÐ x)È$, Ðexplicitly,€communicated€smoking's€addictive€nature.€€EducationalÐ $+t&. Ðinformation€reviewed€by€Martnez€included€a€1944€junior€high€schoolÐ ° Ðhealth€education€bulletin€directing€teachers€to€stress€to€studentsÐ \¬ Ðthat€tobacco€is€habit„forming€and€that€smoking,€once€started,€isÐ X Ðdifficult€to€quit€€€€€Ð ´  Ðà  àòòóóIn€light€of€these€contrasting€expert€reports,€we€agree€withÐ ` ° Ðthe€district€court€that€no€reasonable€jury,€confined€to€the€record,Ð  \  Ðcould€conclude€that€the€general€public€in€Puerto€Rico€lackedÐ ¸  Ðknowledge€about€the€risks€of€smoking,€including€lung€cancer,€by€theÐ d´  Ðtime€decedent€first€started€smoking€in€1960.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€A€reasonable€jurorÐ `  Ðcould€not€reject€Martnez'€detailed€and€comprehensive€report€inÐ ¼  Ðfavor€of€Ferrer's€conclusory€and€incomplete€assessment.€€As€was€theÐ h¸ Ðcase€with€his€testimony€in€òòCruz€Vargasóó,€"Martnez'€researchÐ d Ðfollowed€an€accepted€method€of€historical€analysis€and€drew€on€aÐ À Ðbreadth€of€sources€.€.€.€contemporaneous€with€the€time€period€atÐ l¼ Ðissue€in€the€case,"€348€F.3d€at€278.€€Ferrer's€attempt€toÐ h Ðneutralize€the€significance€of€the€information€disseminated€onÐ Ä Ðsmoking€and€health€by€focusing€on€Puerto€Rico's€literacy€problemsÐ pÀ  Ðfalls€short€given€Martnez'€credible€assertion€of€Puerto€Rico'sÐ !l" Ðoral€tradition.€€Indeed,€Mart.nez'€opinion€was€validated€by€theÐ È"$ Ðtestimony€of€Garca's€wife€that€she€knew€at€the€time€he€startedÐ ° Ðsmoking€that€cigarettes€posed€a€health€risk€ð!ð€and€that€she€told€himÐ \¬ Ðso.Ð X Ðà  àWe€therefore€agree€with€the€district€court€that,€in€failing€toÐ ´  Ðshow€a€lack€of€common€knowledge€of€the€risks€of€smoking€ð!ð€and€inÐ ` ° Ðparticular,€the€risk€of€lung€cancer€ð!ð€appellants€offeredÐ  \  Ðinsufficient€evidence€to€support€either€their€failure„to„warn€orÐ ¸  Ðdesign€defect€claims.Ð d´  Ðà  àB.€òòOther€Elements€of€the€Tort€ClaimsóóÐ `  Ðà  àWe€note,€moreover,€that€plaintiffs'€evidence€also€fell€shortÐ ¼  Ðof€demonstrating€the€requisite€proximate€cause€between€either€aÐ h¸ Ðfailure€to€warn€or€design€defect€and€decedent's€death€from€lungÐ d Ðcancer.€€As€detailed€above,€decedent€chose€to€disregard€hisÐ À Ðfamily's€and€friends'€repeated€admonitions€that€he€give€upÐ l¼ Ðcigarettes€because€of€the€health€risk,€stating€his€intention€toÐ h Ðcontinue€smoking€despite€its€link€to€disease€and€death€because€"weÐ Ä Ðall€have€to€die€some€time€from€something."€€This€attitude€wasÐ pÀ  Ðexpressed€notwithstanding€the€explicit€warning€on€cigaretteÐ !l" Ðpackages,€beginning€in€the€mid„1980s,€that€smoking€causes€lungÐ È"$ Ðcancer€and€other€serious€diseases.€€Thus,€on€this€record,€€warningsÐ t$Ä& Ðappear€irrelevant€to€decedent's€decision„making.׃ ×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€òòAccordóó€òòEstate€ofÐ  &p!( ÐWhiteóó€v.€òòR.J.€Reynolds€Tobacco€Co.óó,€109€F.€Supp.2d€424,€435€(D.€Md.Ð ° Ð2000)€(proof€that€decedent€ignored€verbal€warnings€and€warningÐ \¬ Ðlabels€on€cigarette€packages€shows€lack€of€proximate€cause€forÐ X Ðdecedent's€cigarette„related€injuries);€òòseeóó€òòGlassneróó€v.€òòR.J.Ð ´  ÐReynolds€Tobacco€Co.óó,€223€F.3d€343,€351„52€(6th€Cir.€2000)€(findingÐ ` ° Ðthat€common€knowledge€doctrine€bars€design€defect€and€failure„to„Ð  \  Ðwarn€claims€under€Ohio€product€liability€law€where€"decedent€beganÐ ¸  Ðsmoking€in€1969€[after€the€federal€labeling€act€was€in€effect]€andÐ d´  Ðcontinued€to€smoke€up€until€her€death€in€1997,"€affirming€earlierÐ `  Ðprecedent€focusing€"not€on€the€point€at€which€the€plaintiff€beganÐ ¼  Ðsmoking,€but€rather,€the€point€at€which€she€quit€smoking")òòóó.Ð h¸ Ðà  àIn€addition,€the€contention€that€nicotine's€addictive€natureÐ d Ðrendered€decedent€incapable€of€stopping€once€he€started€smoking€ð!ðÐ À Ða€point€asserted€but€undeveloped€in€appellants'€brief€ð!ð€is€beliedÐ l¼ Ðby€the€testimony€of€his€wife€and€daughter€that€he€stopped€near€theÐ h Ðend€of€his€life€because€he€no€longer€could€afford€the€cost€ofÐ Ä Ðcigarettes.€€Although€he€briefly€tried€nicotine€patches€and€gumÐ pÀ  Ðprovided€by€family€members,€the€evidence€that€he€deliberately€choseÐ !l" Ðto€continue€smoking€despite€its€life„shortening€effect€underminesÐ È"$ Ðthe€genuineness€of€those€attempts€to€stop€and,€thus,€theirÐ t$Ä& Ðprobative€value.€€In€sum,€the€evidence€taken€as€a€whole€foreclosesÐ  &p!( Ða€jury€finding€that€Reynolds'€failure€to€warn€of€the€health€hazardsÐ Ì'#* Ðof€smoking€before€1969€was€a€proximate€cause€of€decedent's€lungÐ x)È$, Ðcancer.€€òòCf.óó€òòTompkinóó€v.€òòAmerican€Brandsóó,€219€F.3d€566,€568,€575Ð $+t&. Ð(6th€Cir.€2000)€(court€reversed€summary€judgment€for€defendants€onÐ ° Ðfailure„to„warn€and€design€defect€claims€based€on€factual€questionÐ \¬ Ðregarding€common€knowledge€where€decedent€gave€up€smoking€in€1965,Ð X Ðat€age€31,€after€smoking€for€15€years).Ð ´  Ѐ€€à  àNor€did€decedent€ever€switch€to€available€brands€of€cigarettesÐ ` ° Ðwith€lower€levels€of€tar€or€nicotine€in€an€effort€to€lower€the€riskÐ  \  Ðto€his€health;€he€instead€remained€loyal€throughout€his€life€toÐ ¸  Ðregular€Winstons.€€Thus,€Reynolds'€failure€to€develop€a€"healthier"Ð d´  Ðcigarette€design€also€could€not€be€deemed€the€cause€of€his€illnessÐ `  Ðand€death.Ð ¼  Ðà  àFor€these€reasons€as€well,€appellants'€failure„to„warn€andÐ h¸ Ðdesign€defect€claims€were€properly€dismissed.׃!×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð d Ðà  àC.€òòRemaining€ClaimsóóÐ À Ðà  àAppellants€also€asserted€a€fraud€claim€and€a€claim€underÐ l¼ ÐArticle€189€of€the€Puerto€Rico€Criminal€Code,€which€punishesÐ h Ð"[f]raud€in€delivery€of€[a]€thing,"€33€P.R.€Laws€Ann.€ðð€4307.׃"è×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€TheÐ Ä Ðdistrict€court€found€no€allegations€of€reliance€to€support€theÐ pÀ  Ðfraud€claim,€òòseeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòMicrosoft€Corp.óó€v.€òòComputer€Warehouseóó,€83Ð !l" ÐF.€Supp.2d€256,€262€(D.P.R.€2000)€(listing€elements€of€fraud€underÐ È"$ ÐPuerto€Rico€law);€òòWadsworth,€Inc.óó€v.€òòSchwarz„Ninóó,€951€F.€Supp.€314,Ð ° Ð323€(D.P.R.€1996)€(same),€and€appellants€do€not€dispute€thatÐ \¬ Ðomission.€€Instead,€they€argue€that€the€court€erred€by€consideringÐ X Ðonly€fraud€by€misrepresentation€and€not€fraud€by€concealment,€aÐ ´  Ðconcept€of€Puerto€Rico€law€known€as€"dolo"€that€does€not€requireÐ ` ° Ðproof€of€detrimental€reliance€on€false€representations.Ð  \  Ðà  àAs€appellants€acknowledge,€however,€"dolo"€is€a€form€ofÐ ¸  Ðcontractual€deceit,€òòseeóó€òòGeneradora€de€Electricidad€del€Caribe,€Inc.óóÐ d´  Ðv.€òòFoster€Wheeler€Corp.óó,€92€F.€Supp.2d€8,€18„19€(D.P.R.€2000);Ð `  ÐòòP.C.M.E.€Commercial,€S.E.óó€v.€òòPace€Membership€Warehouse,€Inc.óó,€952Ð ¼  ÐF.€Supp.€84,€92€(D.P.R.€1997);€òòFournieróó€v.€òòEastern€Airlines,€Inc.óó,Ð h¸ Ð655€F.€Supp.€1037,€1039€(D.P.R.€1987),€and€there€are€neitherÐ d Ðallegations€nor€evidence€to€support€a€contractual€relationshipÐ À Ðbetween€appellee€Reynolds€and€the€decedent.€€"Dolo"€is€thusÐ l¼ Ðinapplicable€in€these€circumstances.Ð h Ðà  àAppellants'€claim€under€Article€189€fares€no€better.€€TheirÐ Ä Ðargument€for€liability€under€this€provision€presumes€a€contractualÐ pÀ  Ðrelationship€under€which€Reynolds€was€obliged€to€deliver€a€safeÐ !l" Ðproduct.€€As€noted€above,€however,€the€basis€for€such€a€contractualÐ È"$ Ðobligation€was€not€alleged.€€Appellants€offer€no€legal€support€forÐ t$Ä& Ðtheir€implicit€assertion€that€the€purchase€of€a€consumer€product,Ð  &p!( Ðwithout€more,€can€establish€a€contractual€relationship;€nor€haveÐ Ì'#* Ðthey€explained€how€Reynolds'€sale€of€Winston€cigarettes€to€theÐ x)È$, Ðdecedent€failed€to€fulfill€any€specific€promises€made€to€himÐ $+t&. Ðregarding€the€"substance,€quality€or€quantity"€of€the€product€to€beÐ ° Ðdelivered.€€Article€189,€like€"dolo,"€is€simply€inapt.Ð \¬ Ðà  àòòFor€the€forgoing€reasons,€the€judgment€of€the€district€courtÐ X Ðis€affirmed.ò òóóó ó