ÿWPCÆ5 ª¤%Ć@„ÜœX÷¸@ªca(Ú59nÆ”2œöü˜—ÿZdêÕ™3†ä= lÃÙ&m]²W¯-cq<ùUÀš"˦"@s íE+=•¿^x¾¨Ü_ ßÑå…±ÑçÓá;{é;‘°³âXæcñï΀à±ÖûÑÖHâŽ_…VøóŽÎ…*Ü1ñÊ!›…•fÊÓ¾p‚[M6ž¦0^L«ÆÀ’Ë|Á¬‰!€ ˜ÜŠÜH L\œ¦ùØ;·ñŸ–FƒcÖ퇴Ÿ¨Ï_¯ê."µWûo8Y˜*=:Ã`G¬ 0‘Zâó!"º¹îÒ<}H&IƱ¿bqšˆ0åëꔟû²n(Lv±%¤Ðð?^b°ŽBÔ>? )wÄBv:~GÊ Öhˆ¬Ž‘geªFNtBâzi|>Å hñçDã, .šQÃTò,Ç> &{4ÜÂ9ñQÚøOxV[ª·B‡O9p’ùâÊ&š§¥¨EÉéûX³ùCÌšj›\{r[™E!ª2ñÞ¤+ÆÊMœ,oq”] ýõLú{7©Ó®µ¾:U¥hçÚ{„Œ’ì’£¬Zo€"ݧ,ÝxÁ£±kdÀõK^@#Á€ %A 0 DG 0(‹UF³ 0 ÆùA¿nT NTV^ ^wj4n‚‘ m“Eªf¬a®NÂ>Äãbå×ííŠÄ(NNÃvT9$$R&µ`*`*`*f.. B{2{2{2{2b˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2˜2U Fú4UF@5U@†5˜HP LaserJet 5/5M - StandardÈÈ,,,,ÈÈ0>X(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó($¡¡.Courier New Regular(d:2}$¤¤Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¶Æ=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó 7Ý ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔOn€the€plaintiffs'€side,€the€claims€brought€by€the€estate€andÐ ° Ðheirs€of€Efrat€Ungar€were€dismissed€because€she€was€not€a€UnitedÐ †Ö ÐStates€national.€€òòEstates€of€Ungar€ex€rel.€Strachmanóó€v.€òòPalestinianÐ \¬ ÐAuth.óó,€153€F.€Supp.€2d€76,€97€(D.R.I.€2001).€€On€the€defendants'Ð 2‚ Ðside,€a€number€of€Hamas€defendants€were€sued,€but€none€of€themÐ X Ðentered€an€appearance€and,€accordingly,€the€district€courtÐ Þ. Ðdefaulted€them.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€at€85€n.2.€€The€court€dismissed€the€actionÐ ´  Ðas€to€several€other€defendants€for€want€of€in€personamÐ Š Ú Ðjurisdiction.€€òòId.óó€at€95.€€For€present€purposes,€then,€itÐ ` ° Ðsimplifies€matters€to€think€of€this€case€as€a€suit€by€Yaron€Ungar'sÐ 6 †  Ðestate€and€heirs€against€the€PA€and€the€PLO.«<þ6X9`("Courier NewTTXXxþ6X@ÉDQX@<þ6X9`(CourierTTXXwþ6X@ÉüQX@ œŠ2s ÉL=16Xy File3|x/ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀøÀTABLE Aq:\template\OPINIONS\SELYA.WPT ÙÝ ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThe€amounts€differed€slightly.€€The€recommended€judgmentÐ ° Ðagainst€the€PA€was€for€$116,421,048€and€the€recommended€judgmentÐ †Ö Ðagainst€the€PLO€was€for€$116,415,468.€€The€reasons€for€this€minorÐ \¬ Ðdisparity€are€not€material€to€the€issues€on€appeal.- ù- ÍÝ ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔOf€course,€an€entity€alleging€an€entitlement€to€sovereignÐ ° Ðimmunity€may€choose€to€ignore€an€action€or€court€order€directed€atÐ †Ö Ðit,€accept€a€default,€and€then€assert€its€immunity€at€a€later€stateÐ \¬ Ðof€the€litigation.€€But€such€a€choice€represents€a€rather€riskyÐ 2‚ Ðgamble.€€If€the€assertion€of€immunity€is€valid,€the€defendant€winsÐ X Ðthe€entire€pot€(i.e.,€it€walks€away€from€the€suit€unscathed)€but€ifÐ Þ. Ðthe€assertion€of€immunity€fails,€the€defendant€loses€outrightÐ ´  Ð(i.e.,€it€must€live€with€the€default).€€There€is€no€need€to€engageÐ Š Ú Ðin€such€high„stakes€wagering.€€A€defendant€may€both€assertÐ ` ° Ðsovereign€immunity€and€defend€on€the€merits.€€òòSeeóó€òòMCI€Telecomm.Ð 6 †  ÐCorp.óó€v.€òòAlhadhoodóó,€82€F.3d€658,€662€(5th€Cir.€1996);€òòPracticalÐ  \  ÐConcepts,€Inc.óó€v.€òòRepublic€of€Boliviaóó,€811€F.2d€1543,€1547€(D.C.Ð â 2  ÐCir.€1987). €Ý ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThe€FSIA€operates€in€the€same€fashion.€€òòSeeóó€28€U.S.C.€ðð€1602Ð ° Ð("The€Congress€finds€that€the€determination€by€United€States€courtsÐ †Ö Ðof€the€claims€of€foreign€states€to€immunity€from€the€jurisdictionÐ \¬ Ðof€such€courts€would€serve€the€interests€of€justice€and€wouldÐ 2‚ Ðprotect€the€rights€of€both€foreign€states€and€litigants€in€UnitedÐ X ÐStates€courts.");€H.R.€Rep.€No.€94„1487,€at€7€(1976),€òòreprintedóó€òòinóóÐ Þ. Ð1976€U.S.C.C.A.N.€6604,€6606€("A€principle€purpose€of€[the€FSIA]€isÐ ´  Ðto€transfer€the€determination€of€sovereign€immunity€from€theÐ Š Ú Ðexecutive€branch€to€the€judicial€branch,€thereby€reducing€theÐ ` ° Ðforeign€policy€implications€of€immunity€determinations€and€assuringÐ 6 †  Ðlitigants€that€these€often€crucial€decisions€are€made€on€purelyÐ  \  Ðlegal€grounds€.€.€.€."). Ý ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThe€interim€agreement€permitted€the€PLO€to€conduct€limitedÐ ° Ðforeign€affairs€activities€on€behalf€of€the€PA.€€Those€activitiesÐ †Ö Ðpertained€only€to€economic,€cultural,€scientific,€and€educationalÐ \¬ Ðmatters.€€Interim€Agreement€on€the€West€Bank€&€the€Gaza€Strip€art.Ð 2‚ ÐIX,€òòóó36€I.L.M.€at€560„61. ¹Ý ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThe€PA€was€permitted€to€organize€a€police€force,€but€thisÐ ° Ðforce€had€no€jurisdiction€over€Israeli€citizens€within€theÐ †Ö Ðterritory.€€òòSeeóó€Interim€Agreement€at€Annex€I,€art.€XI,òòóóòòóó€36€I.L.M.€atÐ \¬ Ð585. JÝ ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔWe€caution€that€the€Restatement€standard,€though€embraced€byÐ ° Ðboth€sides€in€this€case,€is€not€inevitably€correct.€€It€may€beÐ †Ö Ðargued€that€a€foreign€state,€for€purposes€of€the€FSIA,€is€an€entityÐ \¬ Ðthat€has€been€recognized€as€a€sovereign€by€the€United€StatesÐ 2‚ Ðgovernment.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòUngar€IIIóó,€315€F.€Supp.€2d€at€186„87Ð X Ð(alternate€holding);€òòcf.óó€13B€Charles€Alan€Wright,€Arthur€R.€Miller,Ð Þ. Ð&€Edward€H.€Cooper,€Federal€Practice€&€Procedure€ðð€3604€(2d€ed.Ð ´  Ð1984)€(noting€that€for€purposes€of€former€28€U.S.C.€ððÐ Š Ú Ð1332(a)(2)(1970)€ð"ð€a€statute€modified€by€the€FSIA€ð"ð€federal€courtsÐ ` ° Ðgenerally€had€held€that€a€foreign€state€was€one€that€had€beenÐ 6 †  Ðrecognized€as€such€by€the€United€States€government,€in€either€a€deÐ  \  Ðjure€or€de€facto€capacity€(collecting€cases)).€€Here,€however,€allÐ â 2  Ðroads€lead€to€Rome.€€The€defendants'€sovereign€immunity€defenseÐ ¸  Ðfails€the€Restatement€test.€€òòSeeóó€òòinfraóó€Part€III(C).€€If€recognitionÐ ŽÞ  Ðwere€the€test,€the€result€would€be€the€same.€€After€all,€the€UnitedÐ d´  ÐStates€has€not€recognized€Palestine€as€a€sovereign€nation.€€Thus,Ð :Š  Ðwe€need€not€probe€the€point€too€deeply. wÝ ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThe€Montevideo€Convention€is€still€in€effect€and€the€UnitedÐ ° ÐStates€is€a€party€to€it.€€òòSeeóó€United€States€Dep't€of€State,Ð †Ö ÐòòTreaties€in€Forceóó€480€(2004). HÝ ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThis€statute€provides€in€pertinent€part:Ð ° ÐÌà8  àà ` àWhen€a€district€judge,€in€making€in€a€civil€actionÐ \¬ Ðan€order€not€otherwise€appealable€.€.€.,€shall€be€of€theÐ 2‚ Ðopinion€that€such€order€involves€a€controlling€questionÐ X Ðof€law€as€to€which€there€is€substantial€ground€forÐ Þ. Ðdifference€of€opinion€and€that€an€immediate€appeal€fromÐ ´  Ðthe€order€may€materially€advance€the€ultimate€terminationÐ Š Ú Ðof€the€litigation,€he€shall€so€state€in€writing€in€suchÐ ` ° Ðorder.€€The€Court€of€Appeals€.€.€.€may€thereupon,€in€itsÐ 6 †  Ðdiscretion,€permit€an€appeal€to€be€taken€from€such€order,Ð  \  Ðif€application€is€made€to€it€within€ten€days€after€theÐ â 2  Ðentry€of€the€order€.€.€.€.и Ð Ð  ÐÌ28€U.S.C.€ðð€1292(b). «Ý ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔIndeed,€this€conclusion€dovetails€with€the€conclusion€reachedÐ ° Ðby€a€prominent€legal€advisor€to€the€PLO€during€the€1999„2000€peaceÐ †Ö Ðtalks.€€òòSeeóó€Omar€M.€Dajani,€òòStalled€Between€Seasons:€€TheÐ \¬ ÐInternational€Legal€Status€of€Palestine€During€the€Interim€Periodóó,Ð 2‚ Ð26€Denv.€J.€Int'l€L.€&€Pol'y€27,€86€(1997)€(remarking€that€"theÐ X Ðinterim€character€and€extraordinarily€limited€powers€of€the€PA€makeÐ Þ. Ðit€impossible€to€characterize€that€body€as€the€'effectiveÐ ´  Ðgovernment'€of€the€[territory]";€òòseeóó€òòalsoóó€Omar€Dajani,€òòOn€a€BetterÐ Š Ú ÐRoad€This€Time€in€the€Mideast?óó,€Wash.€Post,€May€4,€2003,€at€B1. \Ý ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔWe€recognize,€of€course,€that€the€existence€vel€non€ofÐ ° Ðforeign€sovereign€immunity€implicates€federal€subject€matterÐ †Ö Ðjurisdiction.€€Thus,€the€failure€to€raise€the€defense€in€a€timelyÐ \¬ Ðmanner€cannot€result€in€a€waiver.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòHavenóó€v.€òòPolskaóó,€215Ð 2‚ ÐF.3d€727,€733€(7th€Cir.€2000).€€Nevertheless,€a€failure€of€thatÐ X Ðkind€can€appropriately€affect€the€trial€court's€management€of€theÐ Þ. Ðlitigation.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòBolducóó€v.€òòUnited€Statesóó,€___€F.3d€___,€___Ð ´  Ð(1st€Cir.€2005)€[No.€03„2081,€slip€op.€at€9]€(explaining€that€"theÐ Š Ú Ðbelated€filing€of€a€motion€to€dismiss€for€want€of€subject€matterÐ ` ° Ðjurisdiction€can€have€consequences€in€terms€of€a€court's€case„Ð 6 †  Ðmanagement€decisions").€€That€is€the€situation€here. d XÝ ƒ}$ÝÓ  ÓÓ=€=¾î=X‚ÐXdÐd=Óà  àÓÓòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔOf€course,€if€statehood€exists€at€a€finite€point€in€time,€itÐ ° Ðis€not€terminated€by€belligerent€occupation,€without€more.€€òòSeeóóÐ †Ö ÐRestatement€(Third)€of€Foreign€Relations€ðð€201,€reporter's€note€3Ð \¬ Ð(explaining€that€"[Ô_Ôm]ilitaryÔ_Ô€occupation,€whether€during€war€orÐ 2‚ Ðafter€an€armistice,€does€not€terminate€statehood").ÿ.Courier New Regular<4šÛ 9Z+‹.Courier New Regular(ÖÃ9 Z(Times New Roman Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑTRY,3Ø'Xà3Ø' Letter 3Ø' Letterÿ3Ø'TÑÑ ? ÑÙ*ƒ !Ùò òÓ  ÓÓ  ÓÔ‡>°bþ°X>XÔÔ‡?°à›°°>°bþÔUnited€States€Court€of€AppealsÐ ° ÐÔ#†?X;X°?°à›Å#ÔÔ‡?„Lf„X?X;ÔFor€the€First€CircuitÔ#†?X;X„?„LfY#ÔÔ#†>X¾îXX?X;ä#Ôó óÐ „Ô ÐÓ¹ÓÌÌßA€') °°` dE< ` AßÐ  à ÐÌNo.€04„2079Ð u Å ÐÌà@xx!ìàÔ_ÔEFRATÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔUNGARÔ_Ô€ET€AL.,ˆÐ ! q Ðà@ÄÄìàPlaintiffs,€Appellees,ˆÐ ÷ G  ÐÌà@tt)ìàv.ˆÐ £ó  ÐÌà@` ` ìàTHE€PALESTINE€LIBERATION€ORGANIZATION€ET€AL.,ˆÐ OŸ  Ðà@ˆˆìàDefendants,€Appellants.ˆÐ %u  ÐÌßA€') °°` dE<Ð` AßÐ Ñ! ÐÌà@œ œ ìàAPPEAL€FROM€THE€UNITED€STATES€DISTRICT€COURTˆÐ ¶ ÐÌà@l l ìàFOR€THE€DISTRICT€OF€RHODE€ISLANDˆÐ b² ÐÌà@¼¼ìà[Hon.€Ronald€R.€Ô_ÔLagueuxÔ_Ô,€òòSenior€U.S.€District€Judgeóó]ˆÐ ^ ÐÌßA€') °°` dE<¹` AßÐ º  ÐÌà@„„'ìàBeforeˆÐ Ÿï ÐÌÓ  Óà@@((ìà€Selya,€òòCircuit€Judgeóó,Ð K› ÐÌCampbell,€òòSenior€Circuit€Judgeóó,Ð ÷G ÐÌand€Lipez,€òòCircuit€Judgeóó.Ð £ó  ÐÌßA€') °°` dE<N ` AßÐ O Ÿ" ÐÌÓ  ÓÓ  Óà  àòòRamsey€Clarkóó,€with€whom€òòLawrence€W.€Schillingóó,€òòÔ_ÔDemingÔ_Ô€E.Ð 4!„$ ÐShermanóó,€and€òòEdwards€&€Ô_ÔAngellÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔLLPÔ_Ôóó€were€on€brief,€for€appellants.Ð  "Z% Ðà  àòòDavid€J.€Ô_ÔStrachmanÔ_Ôóó,€with€whom€òòMcIntyre,€Tate,€Lynch€&€Holtóó€wasÐ à"0& Ðon€brief,€for€appellees.Ð ¶#' Ðà  àòòDaniel€J.€Ô_ÔPopeoÔ_Ôóó,€òòRichard€A.€Ô_ÔSampÔ_Ôóó,€òòJoel€J.€Ô_ÔSprayregenÔ_Ôóó,€andÐ Œ$Ü( ÐòòÔ_ÔJaredÔ_Ô€M.€Wayneóó€on€consolidated€brief€for€Washington€LegalÐ b%² ) ÐFoundation€and€Allied€Educational€Foundation,€amici€curiae.Ð 8&ˆ!* ÐÌÌÔ*‹ƒ'ddd Xdd Xdd X°(#°(#‹ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ+  ÔÐ º( $-º( $ ‹‹ÐÓÓÐ SI)n$.  Åâ@38441„„‰ Åâ@‰‹‹SÐÌMarch€31,€2005Ð ô)D%0 ÐÐ RHCÊ*&1"  Åâ@38441  Åâ@ ‹‹RÐÐ()n$2  (ÐÓ  ÓÙ* !ÙÌÓ  ÓÐ  ¦,ö'3? ÐÔ_ÔÑ  ÑÓÓÑ8€¾îXXdÖdÈ8ÑÑ€ÑÓ*°,X°` ¨ ƒX°œX*Óà ` àò òSELYA,€òòCircuit€Judgeóó.ó ó€€This€appeal€raises€exceptionallyÐ ° Ðimportant€questions€of€justiciability€and€sovereignty,€emblematicÐ xÈ Ðof€unsettled€political€conditions€that€have€plagued€the€Middle€EastÐ $t Ðfor€many€years.€€In€it,€the€Palestinian€Authority€(PA)€and€theÐ Ð  ÐPalestine€Liberation€Organization€(PLO)€ask€us€to€countermand€theÐ | Ì Ðdistrict€court's€refusal€to€dismiss€the€action€against€them.€€TheyÐ ( x  Ðcontend€that€the€case€hinges€on€a€nonjusticiable€political€questionÐ Ô$  Ðand€that,€at€any€rate,€the€defendants€enjoy€sovereign€immunity.€€InÐ €Ð  Ðthe€event€that€these€arguments€do€not€carry€the€day,€the€defendantsÐ ,|  Ðseek€vacation€of€two€$116,000,000„plus€default€judgments,€oneÐ Ø( Ðentered€against€each€of€them,€on€the€ground€that€they€were€entitledÐ „Ô Ðto€a€binding€determination€of€sovereign€immunity€(includingÐ 0€ Ðappellate€review€of€any€unfavorable€decision)€before€being€forcedÐ Ü, Ðto€bear€the€burdens€of€litigation.Ð ˆØ Ðà ` àAfter€careful€consideration€of€the€relevant€legalÐ 4„ Ðauthorities€and€perscrutation€of€an€amplitudinous€record,€weÐ à0 Ðconclude€that€this€case€is€justiciable;€that€the€defendants€haveÐ ŒÜ  Ðnot€established€an€entitlement€to€sovereign€immunity;€and€that€theÐ 8!ˆ" Ðdefendants'€strategic€litigation€choices€undercut€their€argumentsÐ ä"4$ Ðas€to€the€sequencing€of€the€litigation.€€Consequently,€we€affirmÐ $à& Ðthe€judgment€below.Ð <&Œ!( Ðò òI.€€BACKGROUNDó óÐ è'8#* Ðà ` àThis€case€had€its€genesis€in€a€terrorist€attack€thatÐ °)%, Ðoccurred€in€Israel€on€June€9,€1996.€€On€that€date,€Yaron€Ungar€(aÐ \+¬&. Ðcitizen€of€the€United€States),€his€wife€Efrat,€and€their€infant€sonÐ ° ÐYishai€were€driving€home€from€a€wedding.€€Near€Beit€Shemesh,€a€carÐ \¬ Ðapproached€the€Ungars'€vehicle€and€loosed€a€salvo€of€machine„gunÐ X Ðfire,€killing€both€Yaron€and€Efrat.€€The€three€occupants€of€theÐ ´  Ðattacking€vehicle€were€all€members€of€the€Hamas€Islamic€ResistanceÐ ` ° ÐMovement€(Hamas),€a€group€designated€as€a€terrorist€organization€byÐ  \  Ðthe€United€States€Department€of€State.€€òòSeeóó€8€U.S.C.€ðð€1189;Ð ¸  ÐRedesignation€of€Foreign€Terrorist€Organizations,€68€Fed.€Reg.Ð d´  Ð56,860,€56,861€(Oct.€2,€2003).€€The€authorities€apprehended€theÐ `  Ðthree€assailants€and,€soon€after,€arrested€a€fourth€Hamas€member€asÐ ¼  Ðan€accessory.€€An€Israeli€court€convicted€all€four€men.Ð h¸ Ðà ` àDavid€Strachman€was€appointed€as€the€administrator€of€theÐ d Ðestates€of€Yaron€and€Efrat€Ungar.€€On€March€13,€2000,€Strachman€andÐ À Ðother€plaintiffs€filed€suit€in€the€United€States€District€Court€forÐ l¼ Ðthe€District€of€Rhode€Island€pursuant€to€the€Anti„Terrorism€ActÐ h Ð(ATA),€18€U.S.C.€ðððð€2331„2338.€€That€statute€provides€a€cause€ofÐ Ä Ðaction€in€favor€of€any€"national€of€the€United€States€injured€inÐ pÀ  Ðhis€or€her€person,€property,€or€business€by€reason€of€an€act€ofÐ !l" Ðinternational€terrorism,€or€his€or€her€estate,€survivors,€orÐ È"$ Ðheirs."€€òòId.óó€ðð€2333(a).€€Venue€for€such€an€action€may€be€laid€in,Ð t$Ä& Ðinter€alia,€"any€district€where€any€plaintiff€resides,"€òòid.óó€ððÐ  &p!( Ð2334(a),òòóó€and€the€plaintiff(s)€may€recover€treble€damages,€costs,Ð Ì'#* Ðâ âand€attorneys'€fees,€òòid.óó€ðð€2333(a).Ð x)È$, Ðà ` àThe€original€complaint€set€forth€both€ATA€and€state€lawÐ ° Ðâ âclaims.€€It€was€brought€by€numerous€plaintiffs€against€numerousÐ \¬ Ðdefendants.€€We€need€not€call€the€roll;€for€all€practical€purposes,Ð X Ðthe€case€boils€down€to€a€suit€involving€the€estate€and€heirs€ofÐ ´  ÐYaron€Ungar€as€plaintiffsòòóó€and€the€PA€and€the€PLO€as€defendants.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ׀Р` ° ÐThe€centerpiece€of€the€complaint€was€an€allegation€that€theÐ  \  Ðdefendants€had€engaged€in€international€terrorism€within€theÐ ¸  Ðpurview€of€the€ATA.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€ðð€2331(1).Ð d´  Ðà ` àOn€an€ensuing€motion€to€dismiss,€the€district€courtÐ `  Ðrejected€an€assertion€that€the€PA€and€the€PLO€were€immune€fromÐ ¼  Ðservice€of€process.€òòóó€òòEstates€of€Ungar€ex€rel.€Strachmanóó€v.Ð h¸ ÐòòPalestinian€Auth.óó,€153€F.€Supp.€2d€76,€90„91€(D.R.I.€2001)€(òòUngarÐ d ÐIóó).€€However,€the€court€dismissed€the€state€law€claims,€findingÐ À Ðthat€Rhode€Island€choice„of„law€principles€favored€the€applicationÐ l¼ Ðof€Israeli€law.€€òòId.óó€at€98„99.Ð h Ðà ` àThe€plaintiffs€served€an€amended€complaint€on€August€23,Ð Ä Ð2001,€asserting€one€claim€under€the€ATA€and€three€Israeli€lawÐ pÀ  Ðclaims,€all€on€behalf€of€the€estate€and€heirs€of€Yaron€Ungar.€€TheÐ !l" ÐPA€and€the€PLO€moved€to€dismiss€the€amended€complaint€onÐ ° Ðessentially€the€same€grounds€as€previously€urged,€adding€only€thatÐ \¬ Ðthe€claims€were€nonjusticiable.€€Alternatively,€they€sought€to€haveÐ X Ðthe€district€court€certify,€pursuant€to€28€U.S.C.€ðð€1292(b),׃!×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð ´  Ðvarious€questions,€including€a€question€as€to€whether€theÐ ` ° Ðdefendants€were€entitled€to€a€non„specific€"functional"€immunityÐ  \  Ð"arising€from€the€peculiar€status€of€the€PA€as€a€functioningÐ ¸  Ðgovernmental€entity."€€At€that€point,€the€defendants€were€notÐ d´  Ðclaiming€statehood;€they€argued€only€that€the€policy€considerationsÐ `  Ðunderlying€the€ATA's€recognition€of€immunity€for€foreign€statesÐ ¼  Ð"appl[ied]€equally"€to€them.Ð h¸ Ðà ` àThe€PA€and€the€PLO€later€changed€their€position.€€OnÐ d ÐJanuary€30,€2002€ð"ð€during€the€pendency€of€their€motion€to€dismissÐ À Ðthe€amended€complaint€ð"ð€they€jointly€moved€for€"leave€to€assertÐ l¼ Ðdefenses."€€In€the€memorandum€accompanying€that€motion,€they€forÐ h Ðthe€first€time€claimed€an€immunity€from€suit€based€on€sovereignty.€Ð Ä ÐThey€explained€that€they€initially€had€chosen€not€to€seek€immunityÐ ° Ðon€the€basis€of€statehood€and€suggested€that€emergent€politicalÐ \¬ Ðevents€in€their€region€had€caused€a€change€of€plan.€€The€motion€forÐ X Ðleave€to€assert€defenses€was€a€curiosity€ð"ð€the€defendants€had€notÐ ´  Ðyet€answered€the€amended€complaint€and€were€free€to€assert,€byÐ ` ° Ðmotion€to€dismiss€or€otherwise,€any€colorable€defense€ð"ð€and€theÐ  \  Ðdistrict€court€never€acted€on€it.Ð ¸  Ðà ` àIn€the€same€time€frame,€the€defendants€moved€for€a€stayÐ d´  Ðof€discovery€and€the€plaintiffs€moved€for€an€order€compellingÐ `  Ðdiscovery.€€The€court€granted€the€requested€stay€pending€resolutionÐ ¼  Ðof€the€motion€to€dismiss€the€amended€complaint.€€On€November€4,Ð h¸ Ð2002,€the€district€court€denied€the€dismissal€motion€and€dissolvedÐ d Ðthe€stay.€€The€court€flatly€rejected€the€claim€ofÐ À Ðnonjusticiability.€€òòEstates€of€Ungar€ex€rel.€Strachmanóó€v.Ð l¼ ÐòòPalestinian€Auth.óó,€228€F.€Supp.€2d€40,€44„47€(D.R.I.€2002)€(òòUngarÐ h ÐIIóó).€€It€also€determined€that€the€amended€complaint€stated€claimsÐ Ä Ðupon€which€relief€could€be€granted€both€under€the€ATA€and€underòòóóÐ pÀ  ÐIsraeli€law.€€òòId.óó€at€47„48.€€Finally,€the€court€reiterated€itsÐ !l" Ðearlier€rejection€òòóóof€the€defendants'€claim€of€immunity€from€serviceÐ È"$ Ðof€processòòóó€and€added€that€the€PA,€as€a€governmental€entity,€was€notÐ t$Ä& Ða€sovereign€state€immune€from€suit€under€the€ATA.€€òòId.óó€at€48„49.€Ð  &p!( ÐFinally,€the€court€declined€the€defendants'€invitation€to€certifyÐ Ì'#* Ðâ âquestions€for€interlocutory€review.€€òòId.óó€at€49„51€(citingÐ x)È$, ÐòòKlinghofferóó€v.€òòS.N.C.€Achille€Lauroóó,€937€F.2d€44,€47„49€(2d€Cir.Ð ° Ð1991)).Ð \¬ Ðâ âà ` àThe€PA€and€the€PLO€moved€for€reconsideration€and€againÐ X Ðasked€for€a€stay.€€Some€two€months€later,€the€district€courtÐ ´  Ðgranted€the€plaintiffs'€outstanding€motion€to€compel€discovery,Ð ` ° Ðgiving€the€defendants€additional€time€to€respond€due€to€theirÐ  \  Ðoverseas€location.ò òó ó€€The€defendants€nonetheless€moved€forÐ ¸  Ðreconsideration€of€the€discovery€order€and€submitted€a€letter€fromÐ d´  ÐPalestine's€permanent€observer€at€the€United€Nations,€which€statedÐ `  Ðthat€the€defendants€could€not€be€expected€to€respond€to€discoveryÐ ¼  Ðdue€to€the€unremitting€violence€in€the€region.€€The€letterÐ h¸ Ðsuggested€that€the€defendants€should€be€allowed€to€wait€until€thereÐ d Ðwas€a€final€decision€on€the€jurisdictional€question€before€beingÐ À Ðforced€to€attend€to€the€discovery€requests.Ð l¼ Ðà ` àOn€February€7,€2003,€the€plaintiffs€moved€for€an€entry€ofÐ h Ðdefault€based€on€the€defendants'€failure€to€answer€the€amendedÐ Ä Ðcomplaint.€€Six€weeks€later,€the€district€court€denied€theÐ pÀ  Ðdefendants'€pending€motion€to€reconsider€the€order€compellingÐ !l" Ðdiscovery.€€On€April€11,€the€court€held€a€hearing€on€theÐ È"$ Ðdefendants'€outstanding€motion€to€reconsider€its€decision€in€òòUngarÐ t$Ä& ÐIIóó.€€The€court€indicated€from€the€bench€that€it€would€deny€bothÐ  &p!( Ðthat€motion€and€the€concomitant€request€for€a€stay,€but€it€did€notÐ Ì'#* Ðactually€enter€such€an€order€until€April€22,€2003.€€Meanwhile,€aÐ x)È$, Ðmagistrate€judge€entered€the€requested€default,€concluding€that€theÐ $+t&. Ðdefendants'€failure€to€answer€the€amended€complaint€and€theirÐ ° Ðrefusal€to€participate€in€discovery€were€the€result€of€a€deliberateÐ \¬ Ðstrategic€choice.€€The€default€was€posted€on€the€docket€on€AprilÐ X Ð21,€2003.Ð ´  Ðà ` àThe€defendants€filed€a€notice€of€appeal€to€this€court€onÐ ` ° ÐApril€23,€2003,€in€which€they€sought€interlocutory€review€of€bothÐ  \  Ðthe€lower€court's€decision€in€òòUngar€IIóó€and€that€court's€refusal€toÐ ¸  Ðreconsider€that€decision.€€They€averred€that€they€had€been€deprivedÐ d´  Ðof€the€opportunity€to€make€a€showing€of€sovereign€immunity€becauseÐ `  Ðthe€district€court€failed€to€take€action€on€their€motion€for€leaveÐ ¼  Ðto€assert€a€sovereign€immunity€defense,€yet€proceeded€to€determineÐ h¸ Ðthat€the€defendants€had€no€entitlement€to€immunity.ò òó ó€€We€summarilyÐ d Ðaffirmed€the€orders€appealed€from,€noting€that€the€defendants€hadÐ À Ðneither€moved€to€dismiss€on€the€ground€of€sovereign€immunity€norÐ l¼ Ðattempted,€in€the€lower€court,€to€make€the€evidentiary€showingÐ h Ðrequired€to€sustain€such€a€defense.€€òòUngaróó€v.€òòPalestinianÐ Ä ÐLiberation€Org.óó,€No.€03„1544,€2003€WL€21254790,€at€*1€(1st€Cir.€MayÐ pÀ  Ð27,€2003)€(per€curiam)€(unpublished).€€We€added€that€theÐ !l" Ðdefendants'€motion€for€leave€to€assert€a€defense€was€whollyÐ È"$ Ðgratuitous,€as€they€did€not€need€the€court's€permission€to€raiseÐ t$Ä& Ðthe€sovereign€immunity€issue€at€that€stage€of€the€case.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óóÐ  &p!( Ðà ` àWe€issued€our€order€without€prejudice€to€the€defendants'Ð Ì'#* Ðfuture€efforts€to€press€their€newly€asserted€sovereign€immunityÐ x)È$, Ðdefense€in€an€appropriate€fashion.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€(admonishing€that€theÐ $+t&. Ðdefendants€"must€adhere€to€the€rules€that€govern€all€litigants").€Ð ° ÐThe€next€pleading,€however,€came€from€the€plaintiffs,€who€moved€forÐ \¬ Ða€default€judgment.€€The€defendants€responded€by€filing€their€thirdÐ X Ðmotion€to€dismiss.€€This€time,€they€predicated€the€motion€on€threeÐ ´  Ðbases,€namely,€(i)€that€the€case€centered€around€nonjusticiableÐ ` ° Ðpolitical€questions;€(ii)€that€the€defendants€were€entitled€toÐ  \  Ðsovereign€immunity€under€the€Foreign€Sovereign€Immunities€ActÐ ¸  Ð(FSIA),€28€U.S.C.€ðððð€1602„1611;€and€(iii)€that€section€2337(2)€ofÐ d´  Ðthe€ATA,€which€provides€that€a€suit€under€section€2333€may€not€beÐ `  Ðmaintained€against€"a€foreign€state€[or]€an€agency€of€a€foreignÐ ¼  Ðstate,"€independently€divested€the€district€court€of€jurisdiction.Ð h¸ Ðà ` àThe€parties€were€like€ships€passing€in€the€night.€Ð d ÐPursuing€the€plaintiffs'€path,€the€magistrate€judge,€on€March€31,Ð À Ð2004,€recommended€the€entry€of€default€judgments€against€the€PA€andÐ l¼ Ðthe€PLO€in€amounts€exceeding€$116,000,000.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€defendantsÐ h Ðinterposed€timely€objections€to€the€report€and€recommendation,Ð Ä Ðreasserting€their€nonjusticiability€and€sovereign€immunity€pointsÐ pÀ  Ðand€contending,€for€the€first€time,€that€they€were€entitled€to€aÐ !l" Ðfinal€determination€on€sovereign€immunity€(including€appellateÐ È"$ Ðreview)€before€being€required€either€to€answer€the€complaint€or€toÐ t$Ä& Ðsubmit€to€discovery.Ð  &p!( Ðà ` àMeanwhile,€the€district€court€had€been€pursuing€theÐ ° Ðcourse€charted€by€the€defendants.€€On€April€23,€2004,€it€denied€theÐ \¬ Ðdefendants'€renewed€motion€to€dismiss€the€amended€complaint.€Ð X ÐòòEstates€of€Ungaróó€v.€òòPalestinian€Auth.óó,€315€F.€Supp.€2d€164,€187Ð ´  Ð(D.R.I.€2004)€(òòUngar€IIIóó).€€The€court€hewed€to€its€earlierÐ ` ° Ðrejection€of€the€defendants'€nonjusticiability€thesis.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€atÐ  \  Ð173„74€(referencing€òòUngar€IIóó,€228€F.€Supp.€2d€at€44„47).€€Next,€theÐ ¸  Ðcourt€held€that€the€FSIA€and€section€2337(2)€of€the€ATA€were€twoÐ d´  Ðsides€of€the€same€coin€with€respect€to€sovereign€immunity.€€òòId.óó€atÐ `  Ð174„75.€€This€left€only€a€single€question:€€"whether€the€PA€and/orÐ ¼  Ðthe€PLO€represent€or€constitute€a€foreign€State€and€are€thusÐ h¸ Ðentitled€to€sovereign€immunity."€€òòId.óó€at€175.€€The€court€answeredÐ d Ðthat€question€in€the€negative.€€òòId.óó€at€176„87.€€The€plaintiffsÐ À Ðimmediately€moved€to€amend€the€court's€order€pursuant€to€Fed.€R.Ð l¼ ÐCiv.€P.€59(e),€arguing€that€the€sovereign€immunity€defense€had€beenÐ h Ðwaived.€€The€defendants€did€nothing.Ð Ä Ðà ` àOn€July€12,€2004,€the€district€court€went€down€theÐ pÀ  Ðplaintiffs'€path.€€It€adopted€the€magistrate€judge's€"defaultÐ !l" Ðjudgment"€report€and€recommendation€in€its€totality,€overruled€theÐ È"$ Ðdefendants'€objections€thereto,€and€denied€the€plaintiffs'€motionÐ t$Ä& Ðto€amend€òòUngar€IIIóó.€€òòSeeóó€òòEstates€of€Ungar€&€Ungar€ex€rel.€StrachmanóóÐ  &p!( Ðv.€òòPalestinian€Auth.óó,€325€F.€Supp.€2d€15,€21„22,€26„28€(D.R.I.Ð Ì'#* Ð2004)€(òòUngar€IVóó).€€In€the€course€of€that€decision,€the€courtÐ x)È$, Ðrebuffed€the€defendants'€claim€that€they€were€entitled€to€a€fullÐ $+t&. Ðreview€of€their€sovereign€immunity€defense€before€being€required€toÐ ° Ðanswer€the€complaint€or€proceed€further.€€òòId.óó€at€23„24.€€The€courtÐ \¬ Ðthen€ordered€judgment€for€the€plaintiffs€in€the€recommendedÐ X Ðamounts.€€òòId.óó€at€28.€€This€appeal€ensued.Ð ´  Ðò òII.€€JUSTICIABILITY€ó óÐ ` ° Ðà ` àThe€defendants€maintain€that€the€complaint€against€themÐ ( x  Ðshould€have€been€dismissed€because€it€presents€a€non„justiciableÐ Ô$  Ðpolitical€question.€€We€find€this€argument€unconvincing.Ð €Ð  Ðà ` àIn€òòBakeróó€v.€òòCarróó,€369€U.S.€186€(1962),€the€Supreme€CourtÐ ,|  Ðprovided€guidance€as€to€the€attributes€of€a€nonjusticiableÐ Ø( Ðpolitical€question.€€The€Court€explained€that€"it€is€theÐ „Ô Ðrelationship€between€the€judiciary€and€the€coordinate€branches€ofÐ 0€ Ðthe€Federal€Government€.€.€.€which€gives€rise€to€the€'politicalÐ Ü, Ðquestion.'"€€òòId.óó€at€210.€€Withal,€not€"every€case€or€controversyÐ ˆØ Ðwhich€touches€foreign€relations€lies€beyond€judicial€cognizance."€Ð 4„ ÐòòId.óó€at€211.€€Determining€justiciability€requires€an€"analysis€ofÐ à0 Ðthe€particular€question€posed,€in€terms€of€the€history€of€itsÐ ŒÜ  Ðmanagement€by€the€political€branches,€of€its€susceptibility€toÐ 8!ˆ" Ðjudicial€handling€in€light€of€its€nature€and€posture€in€theÐ ä"4$ Ðspecific€case,€and€of€the€possible€consequences€of€judicialÐ $à& Ðaction."€€òòId.óó€at€211„12.€€The€Court€then€set€forth€six€testsÐ <&Œ!( Ðdesigned€to€confirm€or€negate€the€existence€of€a€politicalÐ è'8#* Ðquestion:Ð ”)ä$, ÐÓÓà8 ` à[1]€a€textually€demonstrable€constitutionalÐ @+&. Ðcommitment€of€the€issue€to€a€coordinateÐ ,f'/ Ðpolitical€department;€or€[2]€a€lack€ofÐ ° Ðjudicially€discoverable€and€manageableÐ †Ö Ðstandards€for€resolving€it;€or€[3]€theÐ \¬ Ðimpossibility€of€deciding€without€an€initialÐ 2‚ Ðpolicy€determination€of€a€kind€clearly€forÐ X Ðnonjudicial€discretion;€or€[4]€theÐ Þ. Ðimpossibility€of€a€court's€undertakingÐ ´  Ðindependent€resolution€without€expressing€lackÐ Š Ú Ðof€the€respect€due€coordinate€branches€ofÐ ` ° Ðgovernment;€or€[5]€an€unusual€need€forÐ 6 †  Ðunquestioning€adherence€to€a€politicalÐ  \  Ðdecision€already€made;€or€[6]€the€potentialityÐ â 2  Ðof€embarrassment€from€multifariousÐ ¸  Ðpronouncements€by€various€departments€on€oneÐ ŽÞ  Ðquestion.Ðd´ ` x` x ÐÌÓÓòòId.óó€at€217.€€The€Court€explained,€in€a€later€case,€that€"[t]heseÐ `  Ðtests€are€probably€listed€in€descending€order€of€both€importanceÐ ¼  Ðand€certainty."€€òòViethóó€v.€òòJubelireróó,€124€S.€Ct.€1769,€1776€(2004).Ð h¸ Ðà ` àThe€defendants€assert€with€little€elaboration€that€theÐ d Ðcentral€issue€in€this€case€fails€each€of€the€six€tests.€€Most€ofÐ À Ðtheir€argumentation€presumes€that€the€district€court€intruded€intoÐ l¼ Ðforbidden€territory€when€it€interpreted€an€array€of€United€NationsÐ h Ðresolutions€and€Israeli„PLO€agreements€in€a€politicallyÐ Ä Ðcontroversial€manner.€€To€this€they€add€that€the€default€judgmentÐ pÀ  Ðentered€by€the€district€court€was€so€huge€that€it€amounted€to€aÐ !l" Ðpolitical€statement.Ð È"$ Ðà ` àThe€defendants'€position€rests€on€a€misunderstanding€ofÐ t$Ä& Ðthe€fundamental€nature€of€this€action.€€This€is€a€tort€suit€broughtÐ  &p!( Ðunder€a€legislative€scheme€that€Congress€enacted€for€the€expressÐ Ì'#* Ðpurpose€of€providing€a€legal€remedy€for€injuries€or€deathÐ x)È$, Ðoccasioned€by€acts€of€international€terrorism.€€The€defendants€areÐ $+t&. Ðorganizations€that€allegedly€violated€the€statute.€€They€haveÐ ° Ðattempted€to€avoid€liability€by€wrapping€themselves€in€the€cloak€ofÐ \¬ Ðsovereign€immunity.€€The€question€we€must€answer,€then,€is€whetherÐ X Ðthe€defendants€have€set€forth€sufficient€evidence€to€support€theirÐ ´  Ðclaim€of€immunity€ð"ð€no€more€and€no€less.Ð ` ° Ðà ` àOn€this€view€of€the€case,€the€plaintiffs€easily€clear€theÐ  \  Ðsix€òòBakeróó€hurdles.€€To€begin,€the€lower€court's€immunity€decisionÐ ¸  Ðneither€signaled€an€official€position€on€behalf€of€the€UnitedÐ d´  ÐStates€with€respect€to€the€political€recognition€of€Palestine€norÐ `  Ðamounted€to€the€usurpation€of€a€power€committed€to€some€otherÐ ¼  Ðbranch€of€government.€€After€all,€Congress€enacted€the€ATA,€and€theÐ h¸ ÐPresident€signed€it.€€The€very€purpose€of€the€law€is€to€allow€theÐ d Ðcourts€to€determine€questions€of€sovereign€immunity€under€a€legal,Ð À Ðas€opposed€to€a€political,€regime.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Seen€in€this€light,€theÐ l¼ Ðdistrict€court's€decision€denying€immunity€did€not€impede€theÐ h Ðconstitutional€prerogatives€of€the€political€branches€over€foreignÐ Ä Ðpolicy.€€òòSeeóó€òògenerallyóó€òòBakeróó,€369€U.S.€at€211€&€n.31€(noting€thatÐ pÀ  Ðthe€Constitution€commits€foreign€relations€to€the€executive€andÐ ° Ðlegislative€branches,€thus€permitting€them€to€determine€what€"mayÐ \¬ Ðbe€done€in€the€exercise€of€this€political€power").Ð X Ðà ` àThe€second€and€third€òòBakeróó€hurdles€present€no€insuperableÐ ´  Ðobstacles€here.€€The€district€court€had€access€to€judiciallyÐ ` ° Ðmanageable€standards€for€resolving€the€issue€before€it,€òòseeóó€òòinfraóóÐ  \  ÐPart€III(A),€and€those€standards€did€not€require€the€court€to€makeÐ ¸  Ðnonjudicial€policy€determinations.€€Both€sides€agreed€that€theÐ d´  Ðdefinition€of€a€"state"€under€the€relevant€statutes€was€informed€byÐ `  Ðan€objective€test€rooted€in€international€law€and€articulated€inÐ ¼  Ðthe€Restatement€(Third)€of€Foreign€Relations.€€Under€theseÐ h¸ Ðcircumstances,€the€determination€of€whether€the€defendants€haveÐ d Ðadduced€sufficient€evidence€to€satisfy€that€definition€isÐ À Ðquintessentially€appropriate€for€a€judicial€body.€€òòSeeóó€òòKadicóó€v.Ð l¼ ÐòòKaradzicóó,€70€F.3d€232,€249€(2d€Cir.€1995)Ð h Ðà ` àThe€final€three€hurdles€need€not€concern€us.€€These€testsÐ Ä Ðare€"relevant€only€if€judicial€resolution€of€a€question€wouldÐ pÀ  Ðcontradict€prior€decisions€taken€by€a€political€branch€in€thoseÐ !l" Ðlimited€contexts€where€such€contradiction€would€seriously€interfereÐ È"$ Ðwith€important€governmental€interests."€€òòId.óó€€Here,€the€politicalÐ t$Ä& Ðbranches€have€enacted€a€law€that€leaves€undiminished€their€abilityÐ  &p!( Ðeither€to€recognize€or€withhold€recognition€from€foreign€states,Ð Ì'#* Ðwhile€leaving€to€the€courts€the€responsibility€of€determining€theÐ x)È$, Ðexistence€vel€non€of€statehood€for€jurisdictional€purposes.€Ô_ÔÐ $+t&. ÐMoreover,€the€district€court's€resolution€of€that€question€is€notÐ ° Ðincompatible€with€any€formal€position€thus€far€taken€by€theÐ \¬ Ðpolitical€branches.€€By€the€same€token,€its€jurisdictional€decisionÐ X Ðdoes€not€turn€a€blind€eye€to€any€position€expressed€by€thoseÐ ´  Ðresponsible€for€conducting€the€nation's€foreign€relations.€€òòCf.óóÐ ` ° ÐòòRepublic€of€Austriaóó€v.€òòÔ_ÔAltmannÔ_Ôóó,€124€S.€Ct.€2240,€2255€(2004)Ð  \  Ð(noting€that€the€State€Department€has€retained€authority€to€fileÐ ¸  Ð"statements€of€interest€suggesting€that€courts€decline€to€exerciseÐ d´  Ðjurisdiction€in€particular€cases€implicating€foreign€sovereignÐ `  Ðimmunity").€€As€a€result,€the€decision€did€not€signify€a€lack€ofÐ ¼  Ðrespect€for,€or€conflict€with,€the€wishes€of€the€politicalÐ h¸ Ðbranches.€€No€more€is€Ô_ÔexigibleÔ_Ô€for€this€purpose.€€òòSeeóó€òòBakeróó,€369Ð d ÐU.S.€at€212„13€(endorsing€judicial€competence€in€matters€touchingÐ À Ðon€foreign€relations€in€the€absence€of€any€"conclusive€governmentalÐ l¼ Ðaction"€or€"Ô_ÔrecognizedlyÔ_Ô€authoritative€executive€declaration")Ð h Ð(citation€and€internal€quotation€marks€omitted).Ð Ä Ðà ` àThe€defendants€make€a€number€of€specific€arguments,€butÐ pÀ  Ðthese€are€largely€derivative€of€their€disagreement€with€the€resultÐ !l" Ðreached€by€the€district€court.€€Their€unhappiness€isÐ È"$ Ðunderstandable,€but€legally€irrelevant.€€The€reality€is€that,€inÐ t$Ä& Ðthese€tempestuous€times,€any€decision€of€a€United€States€court€onÐ  &p!( Ðmatters€relating€to€the€Israeli„Palestinian€conflict€will€engenderÐ Ì'#* Ðstrong€feelings.€€Be€that€as€it€may,€the€capacity€to€stir€emotionsÐ x)È$, Ðis€not€enough€to€render€an€issue€Ô_ÔnonjusticiableÔ_Ô.€€ForÐ $+t&. Ðjurisdictional€purposes,€courts€must€be€careful€to€distinguishÐ ° Ðbetween€political€questions€and€cases€having€political€overtones.€Ð \¬ ÐòòSeeóó€òòÔ_ÔKlinghofferÔ_Ôóó,€937€F.2d€at€49.Ð X Ðà ` àThe€one€remaining€argument€that€warrants€particularizedÐ ´  Ðattention€is€the€defendants'€assertion€that€the€district€court€madeÐ ` ° Ða€political€statement€in€calibrating€the€size€of€the€award.€€ThatÐ  \  Ðassertion€is€wholly€unsupported.€€The€judgment€reflects€theÐ ¸  Ðwrongful€death€of€a€youthful€man€and€includes€a€trebling€of€damagesÐ d´  Ðas€mandated€by€law.€€òòSeeóó€18€U.S.C.€ðð€2333(a).€€It€also€includesÐ `  Ðattorneys'€fees.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€€The€defendants€have€not€challengedÐ ¼  Ðeither€the€measure€of€damages€utilized€by€the€lower€court€or€theÐ h¸ Ðintegrity€of€its€mathematical€computations.€€We€add,€moreover,€thatÐ d Ðeven€if€the€court€erred€on€the€side€of€generosity€ð"ð€a€matter€onÐ À Ðwhich€we€take€no€view€ð"ð€a€mere€error€in€the€calculation€of€aÐ l¼ Ðdamages€award€would€not€implicate€the€propriety€of€federal€subjectÐ h Ðmatter€jurisdiction.€€We€therefore€reject€the€defendants'Ð Ä Ð"political€statement"€assertion€as€meritless.Ð pÀ  Ðà ` àTo€say€more€on€this€aspect€of€the€case€would€beÐ !l" Ðsupererogatory.€€The€short€of€it€is€that€the€political€questionÐ È"$ Ðdoctrine€does€not€preclude€judicial€resolution€of€the€plaintiffs'Ð t$Ä& Ðcase.€€We€turn,€therefore,€to€the€merits€of€the€sovereign€immunityÐ  &p!( Ðdefense.Ð Ì'#* ÐÌÐ $+t&. Ðò òIII.€€SOVEREIGN€IMMUNITYó óÐ ° Ðà ` àWe€divide€our€discussion€of€the€defendants'€sovereignÐ xÈ Ðimmunity€defense€into€segments,€starting€with€the€legal€frameworkÐ $t Ðand€historical€background.€€We€then€proceed€to€the€merits.Ð Ð  Ðà@LLìàò òA.€€òòThe€Legal€Landscapeóó.ó óˆÐ | Ì Ðà ` àThe€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô,€with€exceptions€not€relevant€here,€providesÐ D ”  Ðthat€"a€foreign€state€shall€be€immune€from€the€jurisdiction€of€theÐ ð@  Ðcourts€of€the€United€States."€€28€U.S.C.€ðð€1604.€€Although€theÐ œì  Ðstatute€does€not€define€the€term€"foreign€state,"€it€makes€pellucidÐ H˜  Ðthat€the€term€includes€"a€political€subdivision€of€a€foreign€stateÐ ôD Ðor€an€agency€or€instrumentality€of€a€foreign€state."€€òòId.óó€ðð€1603Ð  ð Ð(a).€€It€also€defines€what€constitutes€an€agency€or€instrumentalityÐ Lœ Ðof€a€foreign€state.€€òòId.óó€ðð€1603(b).€€Ð øH Ðà ` àThe€ATA€contains€analogous€language.€€It€provides€that€noÐ ¤ô Ðcivil€action€thereunder€may€be€maintained€against€"a€foreign€state,Ð P  Ðan€agency€of€a€foreign€state,€or€an€officer€or€employee€of€aÐ üL Ðforeign€state€or€an€agency€thereof€acting€within€his€or€herÐ ¨ø  Ðofficial€capacity€or€under€color€of€legal€authority."€€18€U.S.C.€ððÐ T!¤" Ð2337(2).€€Like€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô,€the€ATA€contains€no€definition€of€the€termÐ #P$ Ð"foreign€state."Ð ¬$ü& Ðà ` àBecause€the€two€statutory€regimes€use€language€that€isÐ X&¨!( Ðsimilar€but€not€identical,ò òòòóóó ó€the€first€ð"ð€and€most€obvious€ð"ð€questionÐ (T#* Ðis€whether€there€are€substantive€differences€in€the€meaning€of€theÐ °)%, Ðterm€"foreign€state"€as€used€in€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô€and€the€ATA,€respectively.€Ð \+¬&. ÐThe€district€court€concluded€that€the€two€statutes€were€to€be€readÐ ° Ðin€pari€materia.€€òòSeeóó€òòÔ_ÔUngarÔ_Ô€IIIóó,€315€F.€Supp.€2d€at€175.€€We€agreeÐ \¬ Ðwith€that€conclusion.Ð X Ðà ` àWe€recognize,€of€course,€that€even€identical€terms€canÐ ´  Ðhave€divergent€meanings€when€used€in€different€statutes.€€òòSeeóó,Ð ` ° Ðòòe.g.óó,€òòHanover€Ins.€Co.óó€v.€òòUnited€Statesóó,€880€F.2d€1503,€1504€(1stÐ  \  ÐCir.€1989);ò òòòóóó ó€òòUnited€Statesóó€v.€òòSterling€Nat.€Bank€&€Trust€Co.óó,€494Ð ¸  ÐF.2d€919,€923€(2d€Cir.€1974).€€Generally€speaking,€however,€thatÐ d´  Ðphenomenon€occurs€only€when€the€purpose,€history,€and€structure€ofÐ `  Ðthe€statutes€make€manifest€a€principled€basis€for€interpreting€theÐ ¼  Ðwords€differently.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòPerez„Ô_ÔArellanoÔ_Ôóó€v.€òòSmithóó,€279€F.3dÐ h¸ Ð791,€794€(9th€Cir.€2002).€€Here,€however,€the€Supreme€Court€hasÐ d Ðobserved€that€"the€text€and€structure€of€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô€demonstrateÐ À ÐCongress'€intention€that€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô€be€the€sole€basis€for€obtainingÐ l¼ Ðjurisdiction€over€a€foreign€state€in€our€courts."€€òòArgentineÐ h ÐRepublicóó€v.€òòÔ_ÔAmeradaÔ_Ô€Hess€Shipping€Corp.óó,€488€U.S.€428,€434€(1989).€Ð Ä ÐNothing€in€either€the€language€or€legislative€history€of€the€ATAÐ pÀ  Ðgives€any€indication€that€Congress€intended€the€newer€statuteòòò òó óóó€toÐ !l" Ðsupercede,€rather€than€to€mirror,€the€detailed€jurisdictionalÐ È"$ Ðframework€described€in€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô.€€To€cinch€matters,€the€SupremeÐ t$Ä& ÐCourt,€in€a€post„ATA€case,€recently€repeated€its€admonition€thatÐ  &p!( Ð"courts€should€decide€claims€of€sovereign€immunity€in€conformityÐ Ì'#* Ðwith€the€[Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô's]€principles."€€òòÔ_ÔAltmannÔ_Ôóó,€124€S.€Ct.€at€2249.€Ð x)È$, ÐConsequently,€we€regard€an€assertion€of€sovereign€immunity€underÐ $+t&. Ðthe€ATA,€18€U.S.C.€ðð€2337(2),€as€being€functionally€equivalent€toÐ ° Ðan€assertion€of€sovereign€immunity€under€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô,€28€U.S.C.€ððÐ \¬ Ð1604.Ð X Ðà ` àThis€brings€a€second€question€into€focus.€€Since€neitherÐ ´  Ðthe€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô€nor€the€ATA€define€the€term€"foreign€state"€as€it€relatesÐ ` ° Ðto€a€sovereign€power,€we€must€determine€the€intended€meaning€ofÐ  \  Ðthat€term.€€There€is€no€controlling€precedent€in€this€circuit€as€toÐ ¸  Ðthe€essential€attributes€of€statehood€in€this€context.€€TheÐ d´  Ðparties,€however,€find€common€ground€in€their€shared€convictionÐ `  Ðthat€the€definition€should€be€derived€by€application€of€theÐ ¼  Ðstandard€set€forth€in€the€Restatement€(Third)€of€Foreign€Relations.€Ð h¸ ÐThis€standard€deems€a€state€to€be€"an€entity€that€has€a€definedÐ d Ðterritory€and€a€permanent€population,€under€the€control€of€its€ownÐ À Ðgovernment,€and€that€engages€in,€or€has€the€capacity€to€engage€in,Ð l¼ Ðformal€relations€with€other€such€entities."€€Restatement€(Third)€ofÐ h ÐForeign€Relations€ðð€201€(1987).€€Under€the€Restatement€standard,Ð Ä Ðpolitical€recognition€ð"ð€typically€thought€of€as€"a€formalÐ pÀ  Ðacknowledgment€by€a€nation€that€another€entity€possesses€theÐ !l" Ðqualifications€for€nationhood,"€òòN.Y.€Chinese€TV€Programs,€Inc.óó€v.Ð È"$ ÐòòÔ_ÔU.E.Ô_Ô€Enters.,€Inc.óó,€954€F.2d€847,€853€(2d€Cir.€1992)€ð"ð€is€not€aÐ t$Ä& Ðprerequisite€to€a€finding€of€statehood.€€òòSeeóó€Restatement€(Third)€ofÐ  &p!( ÐForeign€Relations€òòóóðð€202€cmt.€b€(explaining€that€"[Ô_Ôa]nÔ_Ô€entity€thatÐ Ì'#* Ðsatisfies€the€requirements€of€ðð€201€is€a€state€whether€or€not€itsÐ x)È$, Ðstatehood€is€formally€recognized€by€other€states").Ð $+t&. Ðà ` àUsing€the€Restatement€standard€as€the€rule€of€decision€isÐ ° Ða€colorable€position.€€In€this€regard,€the€Restatement€tracks€theÐ \¬ Ðhistorical€standard€found€in€international€law.€€òòSeeóó€òòÔ_ÔNat'lÔ_ÔÐ X ÐÔ_ÔPetrochemÔ_Ô.€Co.€of€Iranóó€v.€òòM/T€Ô_ÔStoltÔ_Ô€Sheafóó,€860€F.2d€551,€553€(2dÐ ´  ÐCir.€1988);€òòseeóó€òòalsoóó€Convention€on€Rights€and€Duties€of€StatesÐ ` ° Ð(Montevideo€Convention),€Dec.€26,€1933,€art.€1,€49€Stat.€3097,Ð  \  Ð3100,€165€Ô_ÔL.N.T.S.Ô_Ô€19,€25.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€In€addition,€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô's€legislativeÐ ¸  Ðhistory€is€itself€replete€with€congressional€references€toÐ d´  Ðsovereign€immunity's€roots€in€international€law.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€H.R.Ð `  ÐRep.€No.€94„1487,€at€7€(1976),€òòreprintedóó€òòinóó€1976€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€6604,Ð ¼  Ð6605€(noting€that€the€objective€of€the€bill€was€to€codify€sovereignÐ h¸ Ðimmunity€doctrine€as€recognized€by€international€law€and€to€ensureÐ d Ðthat€this€international€standard€would€be€applied€in€federalÐ À Ðlitigation).€€The€legislative€history€goes€on€to€recount€that€theÐ l¼ Ðvery€foundation€of€foreign€sovereign€immunity€in€federalÐ h Ðjurisprudence€rests€on€the€Supreme€Court's€recognition€of€thatÐ Ä Ðdoctrine€in€òòThe€Schooner€Exchangeóó€v.€òòÔ_ÔMcFaddonÔ_Ôóó,€11€U.S.€(7€Cranch)Ð pÀ  Ð116€(1812).€€There,€the€Court€established€that€the€federal€courtsÐ !l" Ðgenerally€have€no€jurisdiction€over€suits€involving€foreignÐ È"$ Ðsovereigns€with€whom€the€United€States€is€at€peace,€deriving€suchÐ t$Ä& Ðan€immunity€from€the€custom€and€practice€of€international€law.€€òòId.óóÐ  &p!( Ðat€135„46.Ð Ì'#* Ðà ` àOver€time,€the€federal€courts€came€to€rely€less€onÐ ° Ðinternational€law€and€more€on€the€actions€of€the€State€DepartmentÐ \¬ Ðin€determining€whether€to€grant€immunity€in€individual€cases.€€H.R.Ð X ÐRep.€No.€94„1487,€at€8,€òòreprintedóó€òòinóó€1976€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€6606.€Ð ´  ÐThe€committee€report€that€accompanied€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô€noted€that€thisÐ ` ° Ðpractice€was€generally€at€odds€with€the€views€of€the€internationalÐ  \  Ðcommunity;€indeed,€in€"virtually€every€country€.€.€.€sovereignÐ ¸  Ðimmunity€is€a€question€of€international€law€to€be€determined€by€theÐ d´  Ðcourts."€€òòId.óó€at€9,€òòreprintedóó€òòinóó€1976€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€6607„08.€€ToÐ `  Ðthat€end,€Congress€endeavored€to€bring€the€United€States€back€intoÐ ¼  Ðconformity€with€the€world€community€by€taking€immunity€decisionsÐ h¸ Ðout€of€the€hands€of€the€executive€branch€and€depositing€them€in€theÐ d Ðjudicial€branch.€€òòId.óó€at€12,€òòreprintedóó€òòinóó€1976€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€atÐ À Ð6610.€€The€committee€report€unequivocally€restates€the€"centralÐ l¼ Ðpremise€of€the€bill"€as€being€that€"decisions€on€claims€by€foreignÐ h Ðstates€to€sovereign€immunity€are€best€made€by€the€judiciary€on€theÐ Ä Ðbasis€of€a€statutory€regime€which€òòincorporates€standards€recognizedÐ pÀ  Ðunder€international€lawóó."€€òòId.óó€at€14,€òòreprintedóó€òòinóó€1976Ð !l" ÐÔ_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€6613€(emphasis€supplied).Ð È"$ Ðà ` àThis€legislative€history€offers€strong€support€for€theÐ t$Ä& Ðproposition€that€courts€should€look€to€international€law€toÐ  &p!( Ðdetermine€statehood€for€purposes€of€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô.€€The€case€law€thatÐ Ì'#* Ðhas€evolved€in€the€lower€federal€courts,€while€scanty,€pushes€inÐ x)È$, Ðthe€same€direction.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòMorgan€Guar.€Trust€Co.óó€v.€òòRepublicÐ $+t&. Ðof€Palauóó,€924€F.2d€1237,€1243„47€(2d€Cir.€1991)€(using€RestatementÐ ° Ðstandard€to€determine€whether€Palau€qualified€as€a€foreign€state);Ð \¬ ÐòòÔ_ÔKlinghofferÔ_Ôóó,€937€F.2d€at€47„49€(same€with€respect€to€PLO).€Ð X ÐConsequently,€for€purposes€of€this€case,€we€accept€the€parties'Ð ´  Ðagreement€that€the€Restatement€standard€controls€the€statehoodÐ ` ° Ðquestion.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð  \  Ðà@¨ ¨ ìàò òB.€€òòThe€Historical€Backgroundóó.ó ó€ˆÐ ¸  Ðà ` àFollowing€World€War€I,€the€League€of€Nations€placed€theÐ €Ð  Ðregion€of€Palestine,€formerly€a€part€of€the€Ottoman€Empire,€underÐ ,|  Ða€mandate.€€The€mandate€system€grew€out€of€the€idea€that€someÐ Ø( Ðformer€colonies€of€nations€defeated€in€World€War€I€were€"not€yetÐ „Ô Ðable€to€stand€by€themselves"€and€should€be€placed€under€theÐ 0€ Ðtutelage€of€"advanced€nations."€€League€of€Nations€Covenant€art.Ð Ü, Ð22,€paras.€1,€2.€€Palestine€was€among€those€territories€deemed€toÐ ˆØ Ð"have€reached€a€stage€of€development€where€their€existence€asÐ 4„ Ðindependent€nations€[could]€be€provisionally€recognized,"€subjectÐ ° Ðto€"administrative€advice€and€assistance"€from€more€matureÐ \¬ Ðgovernments.€€òòId.óó€at€para.€4.€€The€United€Kingdom€held€the€mandateÐ X Ðover€Palestine.€€Rather€than€"advice€and€assistance,"€however,€theÐ ´  Ðpowers€conferred€were€more€akin€to€rule.€€Subject€to€implicitÐ ` ° Ðlimitations€not€relevant€here,€the€mandate€gave€the€United€KingdomÐ  \  Ð"full€powers€of€legislation€and€of€administration"€over€the€region,Ð ¸  Ðas€well€as€"control€of€the€foreign€relations€of€Palestine."€Ð d´  ÐòòMandate€for€Palestineóó€arts.€1,€12,€League€of€Nations€Doc.€C.529Ð `  ÐM.314€1922€VI€(1922).€€The€mandate€also€made€the€United€KingdomÐ ¼  Ðresponsible€for€"placing€[Palestine]€under€such€political,Ð h¸ Ðadministrative€and€economic€conditions€as€will€secure€theÐ d Ðestablishment€of€the€Jewish€national€home."€€òòId.óó€art.€2.Ð À Ðà ` àHeavy€Jewish€immigration€to€the€region€followed,€owing€inÐ l¼ Ðlarge€part€to€the€persecution€of€Jews€in€Europe.€€Tension€betweenÐ h Ðthe€Jewish€and€Arab€populations€led€to€violence€and€civil€unrest.€Ð Ä ÐòòSeeóó€United€Nations€Ô_ÔDep'tÔ_Ô€of€Pub.€Info.,€The€Question€of€PalestineÐ pÀ  Ð&€The€United€Nations€at€3,€U.N.€Doc.€DPI/2276,€U.N.€Sales€No.Ð !l" Ð04.I.15€(2003)€(Question€of€Palestine).€€By€1947,€the€UnitedÐ È"$ ÐKingdom's€patience€had€worn€thin.€€It€took€steps€to€divest€itselfÐ t$Ä& Ðof€the€mandate€and€dump€the€problem€into€the€lap€of€the€UnitedÐ  &p!( ÐNations.€€òòId.óóÐ Ì'#* Ðà ` àThe€United€Nations€rose€to€the€occasion.€€It€formulatedÐ x)È$, Ða€plan€that€involved€the€creation€of€two€independent€states€withinÐ $+t&. Ðthe€mandate€territory:€€one€Jewish,€the€other€Arab.€€This€plan€alsoÐ ° Ðpurposed€to€make€Jerusalem€an€international€enclave€administered€byÐ \¬ Ðthe€United€Nations.€€òòSeeóó€òòFuture€Ô_ÔGov'tÔ_Ô€of€Palestineóó,€G.A.€Res.Ð X Ð181(II),€U.N.€Ô_ÔGAORÔ_Ô,€2d€Sess.,€at€131,€U.N.€Doc.€A/519€(1947).€€TheÐ ´  Ðplan€delineated€the€boundaries€of€the€two€states€and€the€JerusalemÐ ` ° Ðenclave,€òòid.óó€at€142„46;€€established€a€timetable€for€the€withdrawalÐ  \  Ðof€British€forces;€and€proposed€to€end€the€existing€mandate€noÐ ¸  Ðlater€than€August€1,€1948.€€òòId.óó€at€132„33.€€As€the€BritishÐ d´  Ðwithdrew,€power€would€temporarily€vest€in€a€United€NationsÐ `  Ðcommission€pending€the€establishment€of€provisional€governments€byÐ ¼  Ðeach€of€the€two€putative€states.€€òòId.óó€at€133.€€At€that€point,€theÐ h¸ Ðprovisional€governments€would€"progressively€receive"€fullÐ d Ðadministrative€responsibility.€€òòId.óó€at€134.€€When€the€independenceÐ À Ðof€a€state€had€"become€effective,"€that€state€would€be€accordedÐ l¼ Ð"sympathetic€consideration"€for€admission€to€the€United€Nations.€Ð h ÐòòId.óó€at€142.Ð Ä Ðà ` àThe€plan€never€took€effect.€€Although€Jewish€leadersÐ pÀ  Ðaccepted€it,€Palestinian€leaders€did€not.€€òòSeeóó€Question€ofÐ !l" ÐPalestine€at€10.€€The€Palestinians,€still€representing€two„thirdsÐ È"$ Ðof€the€population€of€the€affected€territory,€argued€vociferouslyÐ t$Ä& Ðagainstòòóó€partition.€€òòId.óó€at€7,€10.€€Faced€with€a€steadilyÐ  &p!( Ðdeteriorating€situation,€the€British€abandoned€the€mandate€andÐ Ì'#* Ðwithdrew€from€the€region.€€òòId.óó€at€11.€€On€the€same€date€ð"ð€May€14,Ð x)È$, Ð1948€ð"ð€Jewish€leaders€announced€the€establishment€of€the€State€ofÐ $+t&. ÐIsrael,€using€the€territorial€boundaries€delineated€in€G.A.€Res.Ð ° Ð181(II)€to€demarcate€its€borders.€€òòId.óóÐ \¬ Ðà ` àThe€next€day,€armed€forces€of€the€surrounding€Arab€statesÐ X Ðentered€the€former€mandate€territory.€€òòId.óó€€The€Arab€LeagueÐ ´  Ðnotified€the€U.N.'s€Secretary„General€that€they€intended€to€fillÐ ` ° Ðthe€vacuum€left€by€the€abrupt€departure€of€the€British€forces€andÐ  \  Ðto€restore€law€and€order€in€the€region.€€òòSeeóó€United€Nations,€TheÐ ¸  ÐOrigins€and€Evolution€of€the€Palestine€Problem€137„38€(1990)òòóó.Ð d´  Ðà ` àThe€Arab€invasion€precipitated€the€first€Arab„IsraeliÐ `  Ðwar.€€Question€of€Palestine€at€11.€€During€the€conflict,€nearlyÐ ¼  Ðthree„quarters€of€a€million€Palestinian€refugees€fled€Israeli„Ð h¸ Ðcontrolled€territory.€€òòId.óó€at€81.€€By€the€time€of€the€eventualÐ d Ðarmistice,€Egypt€had€taken€control€of€the€Gaza€Strip,€Jordan€was€inÐ À Ðcontrol€of€the€West€Bank€(including€East€Jerusalem),€and€Israel€hadÐ l¼ Ðtaken€control€of€the€remainder€of€the€former€mandate€territory.€Ð h ÐòòId.óó€at€12.Ð Ä Ðà ` àThis€division€persisted€until€1967,€when€war€again€brokeÐ pÀ  Ðout€between€Israel,€on€the€one€hand,€and€Egypt,€Jordan,€and€Syria,Ð !l" Ðon€the€other€hand.€€òòId.óó€at€18.€€Israel€prevailed.€€Its€spoilsÐ È"$ Ðincluded€occupation€of€the€Gaza€Strip€and€the€West€Bank,€as€well€asÐ t$Ä& Ðthe€Sinai€peninsula€(previously€under€Egyptian€rule)€and€the€GolanÐ  &p!( ÐHeights€region€of€Syria.€€òòId.óó€Ð Ì'#* Ðà ` àThe€U.N.'s€Security€Council€attempted€to€undo€these€gainsÐ x)È$, Ðby€diplomatic€means.€€It€issued€a€resolution€that€called€for€theÐ $+t&. Ð"[Ô_Ôw]ithdrawalÔ_Ô€of€Israeli€armed€forces€from€territories€occupied€inÐ ° Ðthe€recent€conflict"€and€beseeched€the€protagonists€to€respect€andÐ \¬ Ðacknowledge€"the€sovereignty,€territorial€integrity€and€politicalÐ X Ðindependence€of€every€State€in€the€area."€€S.C.€Res.€242,€U.N.Ð ´  ÐÔ_ÔSCORÔ_Ô,€22d€Sess.,€Resolutions€and€Decisions,€at€8,€U.N.€Doc.Ð ` ° ÐS/Ô_ÔINFÔ_Ô/22/Rev.2€(1967).€€The€document€did€not€directly€address€theÐ  \  Ðquestion€of€Palestine.òòóó€€The€PLO,€which€had€been€formed€in€1964,Ð ¸  Ðstrongly€criticized€the€resolution€for€that€reason.€€Question€ofÐ d´  ÐPalestine€at€19.Ð `  Ðà ` àIn€1968,€the€PLO€declared€that€the€internationalÐ ¼  Ðcommunity€had€failed€to€secure€the€rights€of€Palestinian€Arabs€andÐ h¸ Ðvowed€to€take€up€the€struggle.€€òòId.óó€at€31.€€In€1973,€a€third€Arab„Ð d ÐIsraeli€war€led€the€Security€Council€to€renew€its€call€forÐ À Ðimplementation€of€the€terms€of€Resolution€242.€€òòSeeóó€S.C.€Res.€338,Ð l¼ ÐU.N.€Ô_ÔSCORÔ_Ô,€28th€Sess.,€Resolutions€and€Decisions,€at€10,€U.N.€Doc.Ð h ÐS/Ô_ÔINFÔ_Ô/29€(1973).€€The€following€year,€the€United€Nations€GeneralÐ Ä ÐAssembly€adopted€two€resolutions:€€one€affirming€the€rights€ofÐ pÀ  ÐPalestinians€to€"self„determination€without€external€interference"Ð !l" Ðand€to€"national€independence,€and€sovereignty,"€and€the€otherÐ È"$ Ðgranting€the€PLO€observer€status€at€the€United€Nations.€€G.A.€Res.Ð t$Ä& Ð3236€&€3237,€U.N.€Ô_ÔGAORÔ_Ô,€29th€Sess.,€Supp.€No.€31,€at€4,€U.N.€Doc.Ð  &p!( ÐA/9631€(1974).Ð Ì'#* Ðà ` àOver€the€next€decade,€the€PLO€provided€municipal€servicesÐ x)È$, Ðto€Palestinians€in€the€West€Bank€and€other€refugee„dominated€areas.€Ð $+t&. ÐBy€the€early€1980s,€these€activities€had€put€into€place€"anÐ ° Ðextensive€rival€bureaucratic€structure."€€25€òòÔ_ÔEncyclopaediaÔ_ÔÐ \¬ ÐBritannicaóó€423€(15th€ed.€2003).ò òó ó€€PLO€attacks€against€Israel€grew€inÐ X Ðintensity,€eventually€leading€to€Israel's€invasion€of€Lebanon€andÐ ´  Ðthe€expulsion€of€a€large€PLO€contingent.€€Question€of€Palestine€atÐ ` ° Ð26„28.Ð  \  Ðà ` àOn€July€31,€1988,€Jordan€gave€up€its€claims€to€the€WestÐ ¸  ÐBank.€€òòSeeóó€Jordan:€€Statement€Concerning€Disengagement€from€theÐ d´  ÐWest€Bank€and€Palestinian€Self„Determination,€27€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€1637Ð `  Ð(1988).€€Within€a€few€weeks€thereafter,€the€PLO,€speaking€fromÐ ¼  Ðexile€in€Algeria,€issued€a€"Declaration€of€Independence"€thatÐ h¸ Ðproclaimed€the€"establishment€of€the€State€of€Palestine€in€the€landÐ d Ðof€Palestine€with€its€capital€at€Jerusalem."€€Palestine€Ô_ÔNat'lÔ_ÔÐ À ÐCouncil:€€Political€Communique€&€Decl.€of€Ô_ÔIndepÔ_Ô.,€27€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€1660,Ð l¼ Ð1670€(1988).€€In€response,€the€United€Nations€decided€to€use€theÐ h Ðterm€"Palestine"€instead€of€"Palestine€Liberation€Organization"Ð Ä Ðwithin€the€United€Nations€system,€but€expressly€stated€that€thisÐ pÀ  ÐÔ_ÔredesignationÔ_Ô€did€not€enhance€the€group's€observer€status.€€G.A.Ð !l" ÐRes.€43/177,€U.N.€Ô_ÔGAORÔ_Ô,€43d€Sess.,€Supp.€No.€49,€at€62,€U.N.€Doc.Ð È"$ ÐA/43/49€(1988).Ð t$Ä& Ðà ` àIn€1993,€the€United€States€helped€to€broker€the€firstÐ  &p!( Ðagreement€between€Israel€and€the€PLO.€€Under€its€terms,€IsraelÐ Ì'#* Ðaccepted€the€PLO€as€the€representative€of€the€Palestinian€peopleÐ x)È$, Ðand€the€PLO€acknowledged€Israel's€statehood.€€Question€of€PalestineÐ $+t&. ÐÔ_Ôat€47.€€This€rapprochement€culminated€in€the€signing€of€the€firstÐ ° Ðof€the€Oslo€Accords:€€the€Declaration€of€Principles€on€InterimÐ \¬ ÐSelf„Government€Arrangements€(DOP),€Sept.€19,€1993,€Isr.„P.L.O.,òòóó€32Ð X ÐI.L.M.€1525.€€The€DOP's€stated€purposes€included€the€establishmentÐ ´  Ðof€a€Palestinian€interim€self„governing€authority€(the€PA)€as€aÐ ` ° Ðprecursor€to€a€permanent€arrangement€based€on€Security€CouncilÐ  \  ÐResolutions€242€and€338.€€òòId.óó€art.€I,òòóó€32€I.L.M.€at€1527.€€The€DOPÐ ¸  Ðtreated€the€West€Bank€and€the€Gaza€Strip€as€a€single€territorialÐ d´  Ðunit€and€stated€that,€when€certain€conditions€had€been€achieved,Ð `  ÐIsrael€would€transfer€authority€over€"education€and€culture,Ð ¼  Ðhealth,€social€welfare,€direct€taxation,€and€tourism"€in€thoseÐ h¸ Ðareas€to€the€PA.€€òòId.óó€art.€VI,òòóó€32€I.L.M.€at€1529.€€The€DOP€also€setÐ d Ðforth€a€framework€for€negotiating€the€structure€of€the€PA.€€òòId.óóÐ À Ðart.€VII,€òòóó32€I.L.M.€at€1530„31.€€And,€it€specified€that€while€theÐ l¼ ÐPA,€when€created,€would€be€responsible€for€self„policing,€IsraelÐ h Ðwould€remain€responsible€for€external€security€(including€theÐ Ä Ðoverall€safety€of€Israelis),€in€the€affected€territory.€€òòId.óó€art.Ð pÀ  ÐVIII,€òòóó32€I.L.M.€at€1531.Ð !l" Ðà ` àThe€protagonists€reached€agreement€as€to€the€structure€ofÐ È"$ Ðthe€PA€in€1994,€and€the€PA€then€became€a€reality.€€òòSeeóó€Agreement€onÐ t$Ä& Ðthe€Gaza€Strip€and€the€Jericho€Area,€May€4,€1994,€Isr.„PLO,€art.Ð  &p!( ÐIV,€33€I.L.M.€622,€628.òòóó€€On€September€28,€1995,€Israel€and€the€PLOÐ Ì'#* Ðsigned€the€interim€agreement€called€for€in€the€DOP,€aspiring€toÐ x)È$, Ðreach€a€permanent€agreement€within€five€years.€€òòSeeóó€InterimÐ $+t&. ÐAgreement€on€the€West€Bank€&€the€Gaza€Strip,€Sept.€28,€1995,€Isr.„Ð ° ÐP.L.O.,€pmbl.,€36€I.L.M.€551,€558.€€The€interim€agreementÐ \¬ Ðenumerated€those€powers€and€responsibilities€to€be€transferred€toÐ X Ðthe€PA.€€For€example,€it€granted€executive€responsibility€to€the€PAÐ ´  Ðwith€respect€to€"all€matters€within€its€jurisdiction,"€includingÐ ` ° Ðthe€formulation€of€policies,€the€issuance€of€rules€and€regulations,Ð  \  Ðand€the€making€of€contracts.€€òòId.óó€art.€IX,òòóó€36€I.L.M.€at€560„61.€Ð ¸  ÐThe€PA€was,€however,€denied€authority€over€foreign€relations,Ð d´  Ðincluding€the€establishment€of€embassies,€the€hiring€of€diplomaticÐ `  Ðstaff,€and€the€exercise€of€diplomatic€functions.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€òòId.óó€€Moreover,Ð ¼  Ðthe€interim€agreement€took€pains€to€note€that€Israel€wouldÐ h¸ Ð"continue€to€exercise€powers€and€responsibilities€not€soÐ d Ðtransferred."€€òòId.óó€art.€I,òòóó€36€I.L.M.€at€558.Ð À Ðà ` àThe€drafters€of€the€interim€agreement€considered€the€WestÐ l¼ ÐBank€and€the€Gaza€Strip€as€a€single€territorial€unit.€Ð h ÐNevertheless,€they€subdivided€the€land€within€that€unit€into€threeÐ Ä Ðmain€zones,€each€under€a€different€level€of€PA€control.€€òòId.óó€art.Ð pÀ  ÐXI,òòóó€36€I.L.M.€at€561„62.€€The€overall€framework€required€the€PA€toÐ !l" Ðpolice€the€Palestinian€populace€but€continued€IsraeliÐ È"$ Ðâ âresponsibility€over€external€threats€and€border€defense.€€òòId.óó€Ô_Ôarts.Ð t$Ä& ÐXII„XIV,òòóó€36€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€at€562„63.€€Israel€also€retained€jurisdictionÐ ° Ðover€all€Israeli€settlers€living€in€the€territory.€€òòId.óóÐ \¬ Ðâ âà ` àThe€PA's€legislative€powers€were€similarly€restricted.€Ð X ÐThe€interim€agreement€specified€that€any€law€that€"amends€orÐ ´  Ðabrogates€existing€laws€or€military€orders,€which€exceeds€theÐ ` ° Ðjurisdiction€of€the€Council€or€which€is€otherwise€inconsistent€withÐ  \  Ðthe€provisions€of€the€Ô_ÔDOPÔ_Ô,€this€Agreement,€or€of€any€otherÐ ¸  Ðagreement€that€may€be€reached€between€the€two€sides€during€theÐ d´  Ðinterim€period,€shall€have€no€effect€and€shall€be€void€òòabóó€òòinitioóó."€Ð `  ÐòòId.óó€art.€XVIII,€36€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€at€564„65.Ð ¼  Ðà ` àIn€January€of€1996,€the€PA€held€an€election.€€Question€ofÐ h¸ ÐPalestine€at€51.€€Negotiations€on€a€permanent€settlement€beganÐ d Ðshortly€thereafter,€but€terrorist€attacks€stalled€the€process.€€òòId.óóÐ À Ðat€51„52.€€The€events€giving€rise€to€this€case€occurred€during€thisÐ l¼ Ðperiod.Ð h Ðà ` àIn€August€of€1998,€the€United€Nations€enhanced€the€PLO'sÐ Ä Ðobserver€status,€granting€it€the€right€to€participate€in€GeneralÐ pÀ  ÐAssembly€debate,€albeit€without€a€vote.€€G.A.€Res.€52/250,€U.N.Ð !l" ÐÔ_ÔGAORÔ_Ô,€52d€Sess.,€Supp.€No.€49,€at€4,€U.N.€Doc.€A/52/49€(1998).€Ð È"$ ÐThat€October,€Israel€and€the€PLO€signed€the€Ô_ÔWyeÔ_Ô€River€Memorandum€(aÐ t$Ä& Ðdocument€expressly€subject€to€the€terms€of€both€the€Ô_ÔDOPÔ_Ô€and€theÐ  &p!( Ðinterim€agreement).€€òòSeeóó€Ô_ÔWyeÔ_Ô€River€Memorandum€(Interim€Agreement),Ð Ì'#* ÐOct.€23,€1998,€Isr.„Ô_ÔP.L.O.Ô_Ô,€37€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€1251.€€This€marked€aÐ x)È$, Ðrestarting€of€the€peace€process.€€The€following€year,€the€partiesÐ $+t&. Ðnegotiated€a€similar€sort€of€interim€agreement.€€òòSeeóó€Ô_ÔSharmÔ_Ô€El„Ð ° ÐSheikh€Memorandum,€Sept.€4,€1999,€Isr.„Ô_ÔP.L.O.Ô_Ô,€38€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€1465.€€InÐ \¬ Ð2000,€however,€the€two€sides€failed€in€an€effort€to€reach€a€finalÐ X Ðagreement.€€Question€of€Palestine€at€54.€€A€firestorm€ofÐ ´  ÐPalestinian€attacks€and€Israeli€reprisals€ensued.€€òòId.óó€at€55.Ð ` ° Ðà ` àIn€2003,€the€Quartet€ð"ð€a€group€comprised€ofÐ  \  Ðrepresentatives€of€the€United€States,€the€European€Union,€theÐ ¸  ÐRussian€Federation,€and€the€United€Nations€ð"ð€presented€a€"road€map"Ð d´  Ðsetting€forth€a€series€of€Ô_ÔaspirationalÔ_Ô€steps€designed€to€break€theÐ `  Ðimpasse€and€move€toward€a€permanent€two„state€solution€in€theÐ ¼  Ðregion.€€òòSeeóó€òòLetter€Dated€7€May€2003€from€the€Secretary„GeneralÐ h¸ ÐAddressed€to€the€President€of€the€Security€Councilóó,€U.N.€Doc.Ð d ÐS/2003/529€(2003).Ð À Ðà ` àTo€date,€Israel€and€the€PLO€have€not€traveled€down€theÐ l¼ Ðnewly€mapped€road.€€Peace€negotiations€have€been€virtually€non„Ð h Ðexistent€since€2000,€and€the€violence€continues.€€There€is,Ð Ä Ðhowever,€a€glimmer€of€hope:€€the€recent€election€of€a€new€PAÐ pÀ  Ðpresident€has€thawed€relations€between€the€two€sides€and€created€aÐ !l" Ðsense€of€anticipation€that€a€meaningful€peace€process€will€resume.€Ð È"$ ÐòòSeeóó€Steven€Ô_ÔErlangerÔ_Ô,€òòAbbas€Declares€War€With€Israel€EffectivelyÐ t$Ä& ÐOveróó,€N.Y.€Times,€Feb.€14,€2005,€at€A1.Ð  &p!( Ðà@ðð"ìàò òC.€€òòThe€Meritsóó.ó 󀀈Ð Ì'#* Ðà ` àWe€now€reach€the€merits€of€the€sovereign€immunityÐ ”)ä$, Ðdefense.€€In€scrutinizing€a€district€court's€resolution€of€aÐ @+&. Ðforeign€sovereign€immunity€issue,€we€review€factual€findings€forÐ ° Ðclear€error€and€legal€conclusions€de€novo.€€òòÔ_ÔKarahaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBodasÔ_Ô€Co.óó€v.Ð \¬ ÐòòÔ_ÔPerusahaanÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔPertambanganÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔMinyakÔ_Ô€Dan€Gas€Ô_ÔBumiÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔNegaraÔ_Ôóó,€313€F.3d€70,€80Ð X Ð(2d€Cir.€2002).€€Here,€the€defendants'€claim€to€sovereign€immunityÐ ´  Ðderives€from€their€assertion€that€Palestine€is€a€state,€and€theÐ ` ° Ðevidence€presented€to€the€district€court€in€support€of€thatÐ  \  Ðassertion€consisted€entirely€of€indisputably€authenticÐ ¸  Ðinternational€legal€documents.€€The€district€court's€determinationÐ d´  Ðthat€Palestine€was€not€a€state€was€premised€on€a€legal€conclusion:€Ð `  Ðthe€court€determined€that€the€defendants'€documentary€proffer€didÐ ¼  Ðnot€satisfy€the€legal€standard€derived€from€international€law.€€OurÐ h¸ Ðreview€of€that€decision€is€de€novo.€€òòId.óóÐ d Ðà ` àInternational€law€defines€a€state€as€"an€entity€that€hasÐ À Ða€defined€territory€and€a€permanent€population,€under€the€controlÐ l¼ Ðof€its€own€government,€and€that€engages€in,€or€has€the€capacity€toÐ h Ðengage€in,€formal€relations€with€other€such€entities."€€RestatementÐ Ä Ð(Third)€of€Foreign€Relations€ðð€201.€€This€definition€derives€fromÐ pÀ  Ðthe€Montevideo€Convention€of€1933.€€òòSeeóó€òòsupraóó€Part€III(A).€€InÐ !l" Ðapplying€this€definition,€some€courts€have€subdivided€the€analysisÐ È"$ Ðinto€four€parts,€asking€whether€the€putative€state€(i)€has€aÐ t$Ä& Ðdefined€territory€and€(ii)€a€permanent€population,€which€(iii)€isÐ  &p!( Ðunder€the€control€of€its€own€government,€and€(iv)€has€the€capacityÐ Ì'#* Ðto€engage€in€foreign€relations.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€òòÔ_ÔKlinghofferÔ_Ôóó,€937€F.2dÐ x)È$, Ðat€47„48.Ð $+t&. Ðà ` àIn€practice,€the€third€element€is€the€most€salient€factorÐ ° Ðin€the€statehood€calculus.€€òòSeeóó€òòKnoxóó€v.€òòPLOóó,€306€F.€Supp.€2d€424,Ð \¬ Ð434€(Ô_ÔS.D.N.Y.Ô_Ô€2004);€òòseeóó€òòalsoóó€James€Crawford,€The€Creation€ofÐ X ÐStates€in€International€Law€42€(1979)€(Creation€of€States).€€TheÐ ´  ÐRestatement's€explanation€of€this€element€is€rather€sparse;€itÐ ` ° Ðnotes€only€that€"[a]€state€need€not€have€any€particular€form€ofÐ  \  Ðgovernment,€but€there€must€be€some€authority€exercisingÐ ¸  Ðgovernmental€functions€and€able€to€represent€the€entity€inÐ d´  Ðinternational€relations."€€Restatement€(Third)€of€Foreign€RelationsÐ `  Ððð€201€cmt.€d.€€To€satisfy€these€requirements,€a€state's€governmentÐ ¼  Ðmust,€at€a€bare€minimum,€be€independent€and€in€general€control€ofÐ h¸ Ðits€territory,€maintaining€at€least€a€modicum€of€law€and€order.Ô_Ô׃+×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_ԀРd ÐòòSeeóó€Creation€of€States€at€45„46;€òòseeóó€òòalsoóó€Ô_ÔNiiÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔLanteÔ_Ô€Wallace„Bruce,Ð À ÐClaims€to€Statehood€in€International€Law€54€(1994)€(explaining€thatÐ l¼ Ðwhat€is€required€"is€a€coherent€system€of€authority€structuresÐ h Ðregulating€.€.€.€the€territory€under€that€government's€control").€Ð Ä ÐIn€short,€the€existence€of€a€state€demands€a€community€integratedÐ pÀ  Ðand€organized€as€a€political€unit.€€òòSeeóó€1€Robert€Jennings€&€ArthurÐ !l" ÐWatts,€Oppenheim's€International€Law€122€(9th€ed.€1992).€€ItsÐ È"$ Ðgovernment€must€speak€for€the€state€as€a€whole;€the€mere€presenceÐ t$Ä& Ðof€independent€tribes€or€factions€within€a€territory,€lackingÐ  &p!( Ðcommon€institutions,€cannot€constitute€a€government€in€control.€Ð ° ÐòòSeeóó€òòWestern€Saharaóó,€1975€Ô_ÔI.C.J.Ô_Ô€12,€63€(Oct.€16).Ð \¬ Ðà ` àThe€first,€second,€and€fourth€elements€are€dependent€onÐ X Ð(or,€sometimes,€subsumed€by)€the€third.€€As€to€the€first€ð"ð€definedÐ ´  Ðterritory€ð"ð€the€"only€requirement€is€that€the€State€must€consist€ofÐ ` ° Ða€certain€coherent€territory€effectively€governed."€€Creation€ofÐ  \  ÐStates€at€40.€€As€such,€this€element€is€merely€a€function€ofÐ ¸  Ðindependence€and€governmental€control.€€òòId.óó€€So€too€the€secondÐ d´  Ðelement,€which€typically€is€satisfied€by€showing€a€permanentÐ `  Ðpopulation€within€the€defined€territory.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€at€40„42.€€TheÐ ¼  Ðrelationships€of€these€elements€with€the€all„important€thirdÐ h¸ Ðelement€is€readily€evident.€€As€one€court€put€it,€the€question€isÐ d Ðessentially€whether€the€entity€claiming€statehood€has€a€"definedÐ À Ðterritory€òòunder€its€controlóó"€and€a€"permanent€population€òòunder€itsÐ l¼ Ðcontrolóó."€€òòKnoxóó,€306€F.€Supp.€2d€at€434€(emphasis€in€original).Ð h Ðà ` àThe€fourth€element€ð"ðò òó ó€"capacity€to€engage€in€foreignÐ Ä Ðrelations"€ð"ð€focuses€on€"competence,€within€[a€state's]€ownÐ pÀ  Ðconstitutional€system,€to€conduct€international€relations€withÐ !l" Ðother€states,€as€well€as€the€political,€technical,€and€financialÐ È"$ Ðcapabilities€to€do€so."€€Restatement€(Third)€of€Foreign€RelationsÐ t$Ä& Ððð€201€cmt.€e.€€Again,€this€is€a€function€of€independence€andÐ  &p!( Ðeffective€government€control.€€òòSeeóó€Creation€of€States€at€47„48.€€InÐ Ì'#* Ðâ âthat€sense,€then,€it€too€is€dependent€on€the€third€element.Ð x)È$, Ðà ` àWe€add€that€the€party€who€alleges€sovereign€immunity€hasÐ ° Ðâ âthe€burden€of€proving€that€status.€€òòSeeóó€òòDrexel€Burnham€LambertÐ \¬ ÐGroup,€Inc.óó€v.€òòComm.€of€Receiversóó,€12€F.3d€317,€325€(2d€Cir.€1993);Ð X ÐòòÔ_ÔAlbertiÔ_Ôóó€v.€òòÔ_ÔEmpresaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔNicaraguenseÔ_Ô€de€la€Carneóó,€705€F.2d€250,€253€(7thÐ ´  ÐCir.€1983).€€With€this€in€mind,€we€move€from€the€general€to€theÐ ` ° Ðspecific.Ð  \  Ðà ` àThe€defendants€argue€that€the€state€of€Palestine€exists;Ð ¸  Ðthat€they€constitute€core€elements€of€that€state;€and€that,Ð d´  Ðtherefore,€they€are€immune€from€suit€under€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô€(and,€thus,Ð `  Ðunder€the€ATA).€€This€argument€has€a€quicksilver€quality:€€it€isÐ ¼  Ðhard€to€pin€down€exactly€when€or€how€the€defendants€assert€thatÐ h¸ ÐPalestine€achieved€statehood.€€At€various€points€in€their€briefs,Ð d Ðthey€hint€at€three€possibilities:€€(i)€the€period€from€theÐ À Ðbeginning€of€the€mandate€through€the€1967€Arab„Israeli€war;€(ii)Ð l¼ Ðthe€period€from€the€end€of€that€war€up€until€the€creation€of€theÐ h ÐPalestinian€Authority€(1994);€and€(iii)€the€period€from€1994Ð Ä Ðforward.€€In€an€abundance€of€caution,€we€consider€whether€theÐ pÀ  Ðdefendants€have€made€a€prima€facie€showing€of€statehood€at€any€suchÐ !l" Ðjuncture.Ð È"$ Ðà ` àFor€each€of€the€three€periods,€the€defendants'€proffer€isÐ t$Ä& Ðmuch€the€same€anent€the€first€and€second€elements€of€the€test€forÐ  &p!( Ðstatehood.€€With€respect€to€the€first,€the€defendants€consistentlyÐ Ì'#* Ðclaim€òòóóthat€Palestine€comprises€the€territory€defined€by€SecurityÐ x)È$, ÐCouncil€Resolution€242,€that€is,€those€portions€of€the€once€andÐ $+t&. Ðformer€mandate€territory€occupied€by€Israel€during€the€1967€warÐ ° Ð(including€the€West€Bank,€the€Gaza€Strip,€and€East€Jerusalem).€Ð \¬ ÐWith€respect€to€the€second€element,€the€defendants€asseverate€thatÐ X Ðthis€territory€has€had€a€permanent€population€from€time€immemorialÐ ´  Ð(and,€thus,€that€it€had€such€a€population€throughout€the€threeÐ ` ° Ðperiods€with€which€we€are€concerned).€€Assuming,€arguendo,€theÐ  \  Ðaccuracy€of€these€averments,€the€focus€shifts€to€the€third€prong€ofÐ ¸  Ðthe€test€for€statehood.€€At€that€stage,€the€question€becomesÐ d´  Ðwhether€the€defendants€have€shown€that€the€identified€territory€andÐ `  Ðpopulation€are€self„governing.€€In€answering€this€question,€we€lookÐ ¼  Ðseparately€at€each€period.Ð h¸ Ðà ` àò ò1.€€òòThe€Initial€Periodóó.ó ó€€As€to€the€pre„1967€period,€theÐ d Ðdefendants'€argument€seems€to€be€that€the€territory€that€comprisedÐ Ü, Ðthe€Palestinian€portion€of€the€mandate€was€a€state€prior€to,Ð ˆØ Ðduring,€and€after€the€mandate.€€Their€support€for€this€thesis€isÐ 4„ Ðvery€weak;€they€assert€only€that€throughout€this€interval€thereÐ à0 Ðwere€local€governmental€institutions€in€place€that€catered€to€theÐ ŒÜ  ÐPalestinian€populace.Ð 8!ˆ" Ðà ` àThis€assertion€is€manifestly€insufficient€to€make€theÐ ä"4$ Ðdefendants'€prima€facie€case€of€statehood.€€The€third€element€ofÐ $à& Ðthe€test€requires€governmental€independence€and€control€of€aÐ <&Œ!( Ðdefined€territory.€€That€element€plainly€was€not€satisfied€whileÐ è'8#* Ðthe€defined€territory€was€part€of€the€Ottoman€Empire;€even€if€theÐ ”)ä$, ÐPalestinian€people€exercised€operating€control€over€domesticÐ @+&. ÐÔ_Ôgovernmental€functions€in€the€region€ð"ð€and€the€defendants€offerÐ ° Ðnothing€to€support€such€a€claim€ð"ð€that€would€not€be€sufficient€toÐ \¬ Ðshow€the€existence€of€an€independent€political€unit€that€òòcontrolledóóÐ X Ðthe€territory.Ð ´  Ðà ` àThe€same€is€true€for€the€latter€portions€of€the€period.€Ð ` ° ÐDuring€the€currency€of€the€mandate,€the€United€Kingdom€exercisedÐ  \  Ðsuzerainty€over€the€administration€and€laws€of€the€definedÐ ¸  Ðterritory.€€òòSeeóó€òòKlausneróó€v.€òòLevyóó,€83€F.€Supp.€599,€600€(E.D.€Va.Ð d´  Ð1949).€€Following€the€United€Kingdom's€relinquishment€of€theÐ `  Ðmandate€and€the€onset€of€the€1967€Arab„Israeli€war,€the€IsraelisÐ ¼  Ðoccupied€much€of€the€land€designated€for€a€future€Arab€state,€andÐ h¸ Ðthe€Egyptians€and€Jordanians€seized€the€rest.€€The€net€result€isÐ d Ðthat,€at€all€times,€other€states€had€control€over€the€definedÐ À Ðterritory.Ð l¼ Ðà ` àThe€defendants€resist€the€obvious€conclusion.€€InÐ h Ðparticular,€they€rely€upon€United€Nations€General€AssemblyÐ Ä ÐResolution€181(II),€noting€that€it€called€for€an€independent€ArabÐ pÀ  Ðstate€to€come€into€existence€no€later€than€October€1,€1948,€andÐ !l" Ðthat€this€became€a€reality€in€the€sense€that€"PalestinianÐ È"$ Ðgovernment€institutions€continued€to€function€under€Egyptian€andÐ t$Ä& ÐJordanian€occupation€much€as€they€had€under€the€Mandate."€Ð  &p!( ÐAppellants'€Br.€at€21.€€These€assertions€are€insufficient€to€showÐ Ì'#* Ðthat€a€political€unit€was€in€control€of€the€defined€territory€andÐ x)È$, Ðpopulace.€€The€mere€fact€that€the€United€Nations€conceived€anÐ $+t&. Ðaspirational€plan€for€Palestinian€statehood€does€not€establish€theÐ ° Ðexistence€of€a€state.€€Nor€does€the€fact€that€the€Egyptians€andÐ \¬ ÐJordanians€occupied€and€controlled€a€significant€portion€of€theÐ X Ðdefined€territory€immediately€following€the€end€of€the€mandate€aidÐ ´  Ðthe€defendants'€cause.€€To€the€contrary,€the€fact€is€a€starkÐ ` ° Ðreminder€that€no€state€of€Palestine€could€have€come€into€being€atÐ  \  Ðthat€time.€€òòSeeóó€òòKnoxóó,€306€F.€Supp.€2d€at€437€(noting€that€underÐ ¸  Ð"international€law,€a€state€will€òòmaintainóó€its€statehood€during€aÐ d´  Ðbelligerent€occupation€.€.€.€but€it€would€be€anomalous€indeed€toÐ `  Ðhold€that€a€state€may€òòachieveóó€sufficient€independence€and€statehoodÐ ¼  Ðin€the€first€instance€while€subject€to€and€laboring€under€theÐ h¸ Ðhostile€military€occupation€of€a€separate€sovereign").€Ð d Ðà ` àò ò2.€€òòThe€Middle€Periodóó.ó ó€€The€interval€following€theÐ À Ðoccupation€of€the€West€Bank€and€the€Gaza€Strip€by€Israel€in€1967€isÐ ˆØ Ðno€more€promising.€€With€respect€to€this€time€span,€the€defendantsÐ 4„ Ðrely€heavily€on€Security€Council€Resolution€242€and€its€hortatoryÐ à0 Ðcall€for€Israeli€withdrawal€from€"territories€occupied€in€theÐ ŒÜ  Ðrecent€conflict"€and€for€all€states€to€respect€and€acknowledge€"theÐ 8!ˆ" Ðsovereignty,€territorial€integrity€and€political€independence€ofÐ ä"4$ Ðevery€State€in€the€area."€€That€reliance€is€mislaid.€€There€is€aÐ $à& Ðvast€difference€between€what€should€be€and€what€is;€the€fact€thatÐ <&Œ!( Ðsome€political€leaders€recognize€that€particular€territory€shouldÐ è'8#* Ðcomprise€a€state€does€not€make€that€territory€a€state€under€theÐ ”)ä$, Ðprevailing€principles€of€international€Ô_Ôlaw.Ð @+&. Ðà ` àWhat€counts€is€that€the€defendants€have€not€presented€òòanyóóÐ ° Ðevidence€indicating€that€Palestine€actually€became€a€stateÐ \¬ Ðfollowing€Israel's€conquest€of€the€lands€previously€occupied€byÐ X ÐJordan€and€Egypt.€€The€one€circumstance€to€which€the€defendantsÐ ´  Ðadvert€ð"ð€that€the€Israelis€did€not€dismantle€the€local€governmentalÐ ` ° Ðinstitutions€in€the€region€ð"ð€is€wholly€inadequate€to€show€thatÐ  \  Ðthere€was€a€Palestinian€state€underlying€the€Israeli€occupation.€Ð ¸  ÐThe€territory€went€directly€from€Jordanian/Egyptian€control€toÐ d´  ÐIsraeli€control,€thus€undermining€the€defendants'€statehoodÐ `  Ðargument.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óóÐ ¼  Ðà ` àTo€be€sure,€the€defendants€point€proudly€to€the€U.N.'sÐ h¸ Ð1974€recognition€of€the€PLO.€€We€do€not€minimize€the€politicalÐ d Ðsignificance€of€that€event.€€The€fact€remains,€however,€thatÐ À Ðneither€political€recognition€of€the€PLO€nor€United€Nations€supportÐ l¼ Ðfor€self„governance€is€sufficient€to€signify€that€the€Restatement'sÐ h Ðconditions€for€statehood€have€been€met.€€òòSeeóó€òòÔ_ÔKlinghofferÔ_Ôóó,€937€F.2dÐ Ä Ðat€48€(noting€that€the€PLO€did€not€satisfy€the€objectiveÐ pÀ  Ðrequirements€for€statehood€despite€its€political€recognition€byÐ !l" Ðsome€foreign€states).Ð È"$ Ðà ` àò ò3.€€òòThe€Most€Recent€Periodóó.ó ó€€The€defendants'€argument€forÐ t$Ä& Ðcurrent€statehood€posits€that€Palestine's€changing€status€over€theÐ <&Œ!( Ðlast€decade€marked€the€emergence€of€the€defined€territory€fromÐ è'8#* ÐIsraeli€control€and€the€establishment€of€a€Palestinian€governmentÐ ”)ä$, Ðin€its€place.€€The€PLO's€1988€declaration€of€independenceÐ @+&. Ðadumbrated€the€inception€of€this€period.€€The€period€itselfÐ ° Ðcommenced,€however,€in€1994,€the€signal€event€being€the€creation€ofÐ \¬ Ðthe€PA€as€an€entity€having€some€lawful€authority€in€the€West€BankÐ X Ðand€Gaza.€€The€defendants€suggest€that€this€development€signifiedÐ ´  Ðthe€birth€of€a€government€sufficiently€in€control€of€the€definedÐ ` ° Ðterritory€to€satisfy€the€third€element€of€the€Restatement€test.€€WeÐ  \  Ðreject€the€suggestion.Ð ¸  Ðà ` àUndoubtedly,€the€agreements€to€which€the€defendantsÐ d´  Ðallude€vested€some€autonomy€in€the€newly€created€PA.€€But€theÐ `  Ðauthority€so€transferred€was€limited€and,€during€and€after€thatÐ ¼  Ðtransition,€Israel€explicitly€reserved€control€over€all€matters€notÐ h¸ Ðtransferred.€€òòSeeóó€Interim€Agreement€art.€I,òòóó€36€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€at€558.€Ð d ÐSeveral€of€these€reserved€powers€are€incompatible€with€the€notionÐ À Ðthat€the€PA€had€independent€governmental€control€over€the€definedÐ l¼ Ðterritory.€€To€illustrate,€the€interim€agreement€expressly€deniedÐ h Ðthe€PA€the€right€to€conduct€foreign€relations,€òòid.óó€art.€IX,€òòóó36Ð Ä ÐÔ_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€at€561;€left€Israel€with€an€undiminished€ability€to€defendÐ pÀ  Ðand€control€the€territorial€borders,€òòid.óó€art.€XII,òòóó€36€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€atÐ !l" Ð562;€denied€the€PA€the€right€to€create€or€maintain€either€an€armyÐ È"$ Ðor€a€navy,׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€òòid.óó€art.€XIV,òòóó€36€Ô_ÔI.L.M.Ô_Ô€at€563;€retained€IsraeliÐ t$Ä& Ðcontrol€over€the€territorial€airspace,€òòid.óó€at€Annex€I,€art.€XIII,òòóóÐ  &p!( ÐÔ_Ô36€I.L.M.€at€586;€and€placed€severe€restrictions€on€the€PA'sÐ ° Ðlawmaking€ability€(declaring,€inter€alia,€that€any€laws€passed€inÐ \¬ Ðcontravention€of€the€DOP€would€be€void€ab€initio),€òòid.óó€art.€XVIII,òòóóÐ X Ð36€I.L.M.€at€565.€€These€restrictions€remain€in€effect.€€It€is,Ð ´  Ðtherefore,€transparently€clear€that€the€PA€has€not€yet€exercisedÐ ` ° Ðsufficient€governmental€control€over€Palestine€to€satisfy€the€thirdÐ  \  Ðelement€of€the€Restatement€test.€€òòSeeóó€Geoffrey€R.€Watson,€The€OsloÐ ¸  ÐAccords€68„72€(2000)€(concluding€that€"there€was€no€PalestinianÐ d´  Ðstate€at€the€time€of€the€signing€of€the€Interim€Agreement");€D.J.Ð `  ÐHarris,€Cases€and€Materials€on€International€Law€226€(5th€ed.€1998)Ð ¼  Ð(concluding€that€the€interim€agreement€"fall[s]€short€ofÐ h¸ Ð[achieving]€statehood€for€the€Palestinian€people");€United€NationsÐ d ÐComm'n€on€Human€Rights,€òòQuestion€of€the€Violation€of€Human€RightsÐ À Ðin€the€Occupied€Arab€Territories,€Including€Palestineóó€at€12,€U.N.Ð l¼ ÐDoc.€E/Cn.4/2001/121€(2001)€(noting€that,€as€of€2001,€PalestineÐ h Ð"still€falls€short€of€the€accepted€criteria€of€statehood").׃"×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð Ä Ðà ` àThe€defendants€do€not€deny€that€these€limitations€areÐ pÀ  Ðincompatible€with€statehood,€but,€rather,€contend€that€they€wereÐ !l" Ðimposed€by€force€and€that€the€Israeli€occupation€is€all€that€Ô_ÔisÐ È"$ Ðpreventing€the€full€exercise€of€the€prerogatives€of€statehood.€€TheÐ ° Ðproblem€with€this€contention€is€that€it€presupposes€that€PalestineÐ \¬ Ðwas€a€state€òòbeforeóó€the€Israeli€occupation€ð"ð€and€the€defendants€haveÐ X Ðnot€shown€that€it€was.€€òòSeeóó€òòKnoxóó,€306€F.€Supp.€2d€at€437.Ð ´  Ðà ` àWe€recognize€that€the€status€of€the€PalestinianÐ ` ° Ðterritories€is€in€many€ways€sui€generis.€€Here,€however,€theÐ  \  Ðdefendants€have€not€carried€their€burden€of€showing€that€PalestineÐ ¸  Ðsatisfied€the€requirements€for€statehood€under€the€applicableÐ d´  Ðprinciples€of€international€law€at€any€point€in€time.€€In€view€ofÐ `  Ðthe€unmistakable€legislative€command€that€sovereign€immunity€shallÐ ¼  Ðonly€be€accorded€to€states€ð"ð€a€command€reflected€in€both€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_ÔÐ h¸ Ðand€the€ATA€ð"ð€the€defendants'€sovereign€immunity€defense€must€fail.Ð d Ðò òIV.€€THE€DEFAULT€JUDGMENTó óÐ À Ðà ` àWe€come€now€to€the€defendants'€protest€that€they€wereÐ ˆØ Ðentitled€to€a€final€determination€on€the€sovereign€immunityÐ 4„ Ðquestion€(including€appellate€review)€before€they€could€be€requiredÐ à0 Ðto€bear€any€of€the€burdens€of€litigation.€€In€mounting€thisÐ ŒÜ  Ðprotest,€the€defendants€place€great€weight€on€òòIn€re€Papandreouóó,€139Ð 8!ˆ" ÐF.3d€247€(D.C.€Cir.€1998).€€There,€the€Greek€governmental€entitiesÐ ä"4$ Ðand€officials€moved€to€dismiss€claims€against€them€on€grounds€ofÐ $à& Ðlack€of€in€personam€jurisdiction,€forum€non€Ô_ÔconveniensÔ_Ô,€andÐ <&Œ!( Ðsovereign€immunity.€€òòId.óó€at€249.€€The€plaintiffs€sought€discoveryÐ è'8#* Ðfor€the€limited€purpose€of€determining€whether€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô's€"commercialÐ ”)ä$, Ðactivity"€exemption€applied.€€òòSeeóó€28€U.S.C.€ðð€1605(a)(2).€€TheÐ @+&. Ðdefendants€objected€and€asked€the€district€court€to€adjudicateÐ ° Ðtheir€other€non„merits„based€defenses€before€allowing€anyÐ \¬ Ðdiscovery.€€òòPapandreouóó,€139€F.3d€at€254.€€The€district€courtÐ X Ðauthorized€the€jurisdictional€discovery,€including€the€depositionsÐ ´  Ðof€several€Greek€cabinet€ministers.€€òòId.óó€at€249.€€The€defendantsÐ ` ° Ðpetitioned€for€a€writ€of€mandamus€and€the€court€of€appeals€obliged.€Ð  \  ÐThe€court€held€(i)€that€there€were€less€intrusive€ways€ofÐ ¸  Ðdetermining€the€applicability€of€the€Ô_ÔFSIAÔ_Ô€exemption,€and€(ii)€thatÐ d´  Ðthe€trial€court€should€have€grappled€with€the€non„merits„basedÐ `  Ðdefenses€before€subjecting€the€defendants€to€jurisdictionalÐ ¼  Ðdiscovery.€€òòId.óó€at€254.Ð h¸ Ðà ` àWe€do€not€lightly€dismiss€the€reasoning€behindÐ d ÐòòPapandreouóó.€€Had€the€defendants€in€this€case€raised€their€sovereignÐ À Ðimmunity€defense€in€a€timely€manner,€their€argument€that€they€wereÐ l¼ Ðentitled€to€adjudication€of€that€defense€before€proceeding€with€theÐ h Ðmerits€of€the€litigation€might€have€some€force.€€After€all,€aÐ Ä Ðdistrict€court's€denial€of€a€motion€to€dismiss€a€complaint€on€theÐ pÀ  Ðground€of€foreign€sovereign€immunity€is€immediately€appealableÐ !l" Ðunder€the€collateral€order€doctrine.€€òòSeeóó€òòPriceóó€v.€òòSocialistÐ È"$ ÐPeople's€Libyan€Arab€Ô_ÔJamahiriyaÔ_Ôóó,€389€F.3d€192,€196€(D.C.€Cir.Ð t$Ä& Ð2004);€òòS€&€Davis€Ô_ÔInt'lÔ_Ô,€Inc.óó€v.€òòRepublic€of€Yemenóó,€218€F.3d€1292,Ð  &p!( Ð1295€(11th€Cir.€2000);€òòTransatlantic€Ô_ÔShiffahrtskontorÔ_Ô€GmbHóó€v.Ð Ì'#* ÐòòShanghai€Foreign€Trade€Corp.óó,€204€F.3d€384,€387€(2d€Cir.€2000);Ð x)È$, ÐòòÔ_ÔJungquistÔ_Ôóó€v.€òòSheikh€Sultan€Bin€Ô_ÔKhalifaÔ_Ô€Al€Ô_ÔNahyanÔ_Ôóó,€115€F.3d€1020,Ð $+t&. Ð1025€(D.C.€Cir.€1997).€€And€such€an€appeal€ordinarily€divests€theÐ ° Ðdistrict€court€of€jurisdiction€to€proceed€with€the€litigationÐ \¬ Ðpending€its€resolution.€€òòSeeóó€òòRivera„Torresóó€v.€òòOrtiz€Ô_ÔVelezÔ_Ôóó,€341€F.3dÐ X Ð86,€93€(1st€Cir.€2003);€òòÔ_ÔApostolÔ_Ôóó€v.€òòÔ_ÔGallionÔ_Ôóó,€870€F.2d€1335,€1338Ð ´  Ð(7th€Cir.€1989);€òòseeóó€òòalsoóó€òòEckert€Ô_ÔInt'lÔ_Ô,€Inc.óó€v.€òòÔ_ÔGov'tÔ_Ô€of€SovereignÐ ` ° ÐDemocratic€Republic€of€Fijióó,€834€F.€Supp.€167,€175€(E.D.€Va.€1993)Ð  \  Ð(noting€that€foreign€state's€non„frivolous€interlocutory€sovereignÐ ¸  Ðimmunity€appeal€divests€district€court€of€jurisdiction).Ð d´  Ðà ` àThese€principles€are€not€absolute.€€None€of€the€citedÐ `  Ðcases€stand€for€the€proposition€that€sovereign€immunity€is€a€trumpÐ ¼  Ðcard€that€may€be€held€in€reserve€until€a€defendant€sees€fit€to€playÐ h¸ Ðit,€thus€enabling€the€defendant€to€stop€the€litigation€in€itsÐ d Ðtracks€at€a€time€of€its€choosing.€€That€is€simply€not€the€law.€€AsÐ À Ðwe€have€explained€in€a€related€context,€"in€exchange€for€theÐ l¼ Ðdefendant's€right€to€interrupt€the€judicial€process,€the€court€mayÐ h Ðexpect€a€reasonable€modicum€of€diligence€in€the€exercise€of€thatÐ Ä Ðright."€€òòÔ_ÔGuzmnÔ_Ô„Riveraóó€v.€òòRivera„Cruzóó,€98€F.3d€664,€668„69€(1stÐ pÀ  ÐCir.€1996)€(quoting€òòKennedyóó€v.€òòCity€of€Clevelandóó,€797€F.2d€297,€301Ð !l" Ð(6th€Cir.€1986)).€€Demanding€such€diligence€is€"virtually€essentialÐ È"$ Ðâ âto€orderly€judicial€management€of€the€vexing€procedural€problems"Ð t$Ä& Ðthat€accompany€assertions€of€immunity.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€òòÔ_ÔFisichelliÔ_Ôóó€v.€òòCity€KnownÐ ° Ðas€Town€of€Methuenóó,€884€F.2d€17,€19€(1st€Cir.€1989).Ð \¬ Ðâ âà ` àThe€defendants,€for€whatever€reason,€elected€not€toÐ X Ðassert€sovereign€immunity€in€either€of€their€first€two€motions€toÐ ´  Ðdismiss.€€By€the€time€that€the€district€court€ordered€the€entry€ofÐ ` ° Ða€default,€the€defendants€still€had€not€moved€to€dismiss€on€theÐ  \  Ðground€of€sovereign€immunity.€€The€district€court€found,€and€theÐ ¸  Ðdefendants'€own€words€appear€to€confirm,€that€this€recalcitranceÐ d´  Ðwas€intentional€and€designed€to€accomplish€some€obscure€strategicÐ `  Ðaim.€€òòSeeóó€òòÔ_ÔUngarÔ_Ô€IVóó,€325€F.€Supp.€2d€at€23„24.Ð ¼  Ðà ` àGiven€this€sequence€of€events,€the€defendants'€argumentsÐ h¸ Ðare€unpersuasive.€€Here,€as€contemplated€in€òòPapandreouóó,€discoveryÐ d Ðwas€stayed€until€the€defendants€had€a€full€determination€of€theÐ À Ðnon„merits„based€defenses€that€they€initially€chose€to€assertÐ l¼ Ð(including€insufficiency€of€process,€forum€non€Ô_ÔconveniensÔ_Ô,€and€lackÐ h Ðof€in€personam€jurisdiction).€€After€rejecting€those€defenses€andÐ Ä Ðdenying€two€motions€to€dismiss,€the€district€court€in€effectÐ pÀ  Ðordered€the€litigation€to€proceed.€€The€defendants€ð"ð€who€to€thatÐ ° Ðpoint€had€not€raised€a€sovereign€immunity€defense€ð"ð€nonethelessÐ \¬ Ðrefused€either€to€answer€the€amended€complaint€or€to€comply€withÐ X Ðthe€court's€discovery€orders.€€In€view€of€this€history,€we€believeÐ ´  Ðthat€the€district€court€acted€well€within€the€Ô_ÔencinctureÔ_Ô€of€itsÐ ` ° Ðdiscretion€in€entering€the€default.€€òòSeeóó€òòÔ_ÔCompaniaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔInteramericanaÔ_ÔÐ  \  ÐExport„Import,€S.A.óó€v.€òòÔ_ÔCompaniaÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔDominicanaÔ_Ô€de€Ô_ÔAviacionÔ_Ôóó,€88€F.3dÐ ¸  Ð948,€951„52€(11th€Cir.€1996)€(permitting€entry€of€default€againstÐ d´  Ðforeign€state€due€to€its€willful€failure€to€comply€with€courtÐ `  Ðorders).€€The€defendants€deliberately€chose€to€hold€off€onÐ ¼  Ðasserting€a€sovereign€immunity€defense€ð"ð€and€they€must€live€withÐ h¸ Ðthe€consequences€of€that€choice.׃%×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð d Ðò òV.€€CONCLUSIONó óÐ À Ðà ` àWe€need€go€no€further.€€The€defendants€have€not€shownÐ ˆØ Ðthat€this€case€involves€Ô_ÔnonjusticiableÔ_Ô€political€questions.€€ByÐ 4„ Ðlike€token,€they€have€not€shown€that€Palestine€is€a€state€and,€asÐ à0 Ða€consequence,€they€do€not€have€available€to€them€the€buckler€ofÐ ŒÜ  Ðsovereign€immunity.€€Consequently,€they€cannot€set€aside€theÐ 8!ˆ" Ðjudgment€on€that€ground.€€And,€finally,€they€have€failed€to€showÐ ° Ðthat€the€district€court€acted€precipitously€either€in€entering€aÐ \¬ Ðdefault€or€in€reducing€the€default€to€judgment.€€Accordingly,€weÐ X Ðreject€their€appeal.Ð ´  ÐÌò òòòAffirmedóó.ó ó