ÿWPCA7 ]<mÝÁ äRõy«)À°–ÿ6É+&ôôÕ|g÷5†ñ=ag3e9ëí :™Úö@’ÒÉ0eÎvö…9–¨vêPåp*Y‹›÷"Qñ„Ëš‡W¬"¯:s3¦°E”½1³úeô M:8•Æ+ØÀ­·}7#ËÖE[cé Í€: JU.™S1n´ö¨›—€BÆG~ªvÆ©¥1'ý4åw  Ð|Àùìbí·{#zõq£ƒ0eåµÄÃÞÓÒ7ñó„‹#‡æ!ÇxšH p‰#ƒ{ÊjÅF/0ì>èd5ím1mÐ.hÎéµ/ŒÇ(Vw}ëu@þæ–äöÍîH5Owº&Ô½|©Zi ­õg˜GmÜ?ìÌÎârb~ÞK5âž×—<³çßÀŠmOè²û÷\'ëì~‚kcê2¿YÅÖY2K&ûö'Iƒ pð¾Gh´–×?¢V™Îb{œ¿°ãµ¬©3þæ€r‘“D Hqˆ)eÚ¤TQ"ã~WAþÚù_ÿøÉßg/ÙÌyuïbû±Jsñ5y£ìÛ·Å)ŒD¯ |êK|fyw['Fü¥Ôï}õýUS®å®AìNµjHc;p­—iai¹’2#ɼ %…U8‹ 0GÃU:  0øDU.< nTj N¾ U@À ^ w 4 $ 3 m5 EL fN aP UBd b¦ :® 9è !*7Za 0D»ÿÿÿÿZó^QûRR›M Bèü4%5(5(5J(J(J(J(¾/=1˜HP LaserJet 4000 Series PCL 5eÈÇ,,,,ÈÇ0X<4šÛ 9Z+‹ Courier New (‚$¡¡Ô€XOXXXÔ<þ6X9`("Courier NewTT(·2)$¤¤Ý ƒ‚!ÝÔ€XE0XXXÔÝ  ÝÓ  ÓÓÓÔ€XE0XXXE0ÔòòÓ=€E0‚ÐXdÐd=ÓÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó<þ6X9`(Courier«<þ6X9`("Courier NewTTXXxþ6X@ÉDQX@<þ6X9`(CourierTTXXwþ6X@ÉüQX@(ÖÃ9 Z‹(Times New Roman ”³4ó ¦‰¡4?,}›backup3|x!ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀøÀTABLE A<þ6X9`(*Courier 12pt10cpi- ù- 0Ô_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò4óóÔ‡X\ÜXXXÔThe€Attorney€General€maintains€a€list€of€unlicensed€tobaccoÐ ° Ðretailers€that€he€distributes€to€carriers€operating€in€Maine.€€22Ð †Ö ÐM.R.S.A.€ðð€1555„D€(2).Ô#†X\ÜXXX\Ü/#Ô /Ô_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò1óóWe€are€grateful€for€the€amicus€curiae€briefs€filed€by€severalÐ ° Ðstate€attorneys€general,€the€American€Trucking€Association,€theÐ †Ö ÐFederal€Express€Corporation€and€the€United€States€Chamber€ofÐ \¬ ÐCommerce. Ñ ° Ñ StahlO'DeaLaFond TaubBorensteinKatzinFoerster LLP L.D.preloadersAss'nGalarzaAdverComm'n a]ssociational MgmtServsMerriamMendoncaMootnessMcKinneyC.N.J.curiam t]heMangualSabatScientologyMullinHoultons GadeNat'lRuthardtMedtronic LohrSprietsmaa]lsoDesardouinMastercraft ABF Sys BotzInt'lemptsERISArelat[inglangaugeEasterbrook I]fWoganis]tateCipolloneLiggettDep'tYeskeyWolens JurSynaraffect[sSchemps]erviceAyotteemptionFAAAAPataki GBDW.D.N.Y.S.D.N.Y.requir[esT]obacco PÔ_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò3óóÔ‡X\ÜXXXÔIt€does€not,€however,€bar€the€delivery€of€tobacco€productsÐ ° Ðpurchased€from€an€unlicensed€retailer€to€a€licensed€tobaccoÐ †Ö Ðretailer€or€distributor€operating€in€Maine.Ô#†X\ÜXXX\Ü/#Ô€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó ûÔ_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò5óóWhile€the€associations€rely€on€UPS'€experience€to€prove€thatÐ ° Ðthe€Tobacco€Delivery€has€a€forbidden€significant€effect€onÐ †Ö Ðcarriers,€UPS€is€not€a€party€to€this€action. PÔ_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò2óóTobacco€products€are€broadly€defined€to€include€"any€form€ofÐ ° Ðtobacco€and€any€material€or€device€used€in€the€smoking,€chewing,€orÐ †Ö Ðother€form€of€tobacco€consumption,€including€cigarette€papers€andÐ \¬ Ðpipes."€€22€M.R.S.A.€ðð€1551(3). éÔ_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò6óóUPS€does€not€cross„reference€packages€against€the€AttorneyÐ ° ÐGeneral's€list€to€determine€if€the€shipper€is€listed€as€anÐ †Ö Ðunlicensed€tobacco€retailer. ÷Ô_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò8óóEven€if€"an"€as€used€in€ðð€41713(b)(4)(A)€is€ambiguous,€"any"Ð ° Ðas€used€in€ðð€14501(c)€is€clear,€and€Congress€has€emphasized€thatÐ †Ö Ðthese€provisions€were€intended€to€"function€in€the€exact€sameÐ \¬ Ðmanner."€€H.R.€Conf.€Rep.€103„677€at€85,€òòreprinted€inóó€1994Ð 2‚ ÐU.S.C.C.A.N.€at€Ô_Ô1757.Ô_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_Ô ñÔ_ÔÒe°ÒÓ  Óà ½ àòò9óóThe€Attorney€General€also€argues€that€representationalÐ ° Ðstanding€should€not€be€allowed€because€"the€increased€use€ofÐ †Ö Ð[representational]€standing€by€large€businesses€[makes]€the€defenseÐ \¬ Ðof€suits€.€.€.€more€difficult€by€controlling€discovery€and€accessÐ 2‚ Ðto€information."€€We€do€not€foreclose€the€possibility€thatÐ X Ðrepresentational€standing€may€be€improper€in€a€particular€caseÐ Þ. Ðbecause€of€some€hardship€imposed€on€a€defendant€in€conductingÐ ´  Ðdiscovery.€€But€the€Attorney€General€has€not€attempted€to€Ð Š Ú Ðdemonstrate€such€a€hardship€here.òòóó ‘Ô_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò11óóIn€1994€Congress€replaced€"relating"€€with€€"related"€andÐ ° Ð"rates"€with€"price"€but€did€not€intend€these€revisions€toÐ †Ö Ðsubstantively€change€the€law.€€òòSeeóóPub.€L.€No.€103„272,€ðð€1(a);€108Ð \¬ ÐStat.€745.€€This€provision€is€currently€codified€at€49€U.S.C.€ððÐ 2‚ Ð41713(b)(1). d òÔ_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò13óóThere€are€many€state€laws€barring€the€transport€and€deliveryÐ ° Ðof€contraband.€€òòE.g.óó,€Ala.€Code€ðð€2„14„5€(barring€transport€ofÐ †Ö Ðcertain€products€related€to€bee€keeping);€Ariz.€Rev.€Stat.€ðð€3„209Ð \¬ Ð(barring€the€transport€of€quarantined€produce);€Ariz.€Rev.€Stat.€ððÐ 2‚ Ð13„3102€(barring€transport€of€prohibited€weapons);€Cal.€Bus.€&Ð X ÐProf.€Code€ðð€€17533.9€(barring€transport€of€tear€gas);€Cal.€Fish€&Ð Þ. ÐGame€Code€ðð€4800€(barring€the€transport€of€mountain€lions);€N.Y.Ð ´  ÐPenal€Law€ðð€190.50€(barring€transport€of€slot€machines€or€otherÐ Š Ú Ðgambling€devices).€We€have€not€a€found€a€single€case,€outside€theÐ ` ° Ðtobacco€context,€in€which€bans€on€the€transport€of€contraband€haveÐ 6 †  Ðbeen€challenged€as€preempted€by€the€FAAAA.€€òòCf.óó€Sir€Arthur€ConanÐ  \  ÐDoyle,€òòSilver€Blazeóó€(1890)€(William€S.€Baring„Gould,€ed.,€òòTheÐ â 2  ÐAnnotated€Sherlock€Holmesóó,€Vol.€II,€1967)€(Detective€Gregory:€"'IsÐ ¸  Ðthere€any€other€point€to€which€you€would€wish€to€draw€myÐ ŽÞ  Ðattention?"€Sherlock€Holmes:€"To€the€curious€incident€of€the€dog€inÐ d´  Ðthe€night„time."€€Gregory:€"The€dog€did€nothing€in€the€night„time."€Ð :Š  ÐHolmes:€"That€was€the€curious€Ô_Ôincident.").Ô_Ô *Ô_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò14óóThe€Attorney€General€argues€that€the€associations€have€failedÐ ° Ðto€establish€a€forbidden€significant€effect€on€UPS€because€they€didÐ †Ö Ðnot€offer€studies€conducted€by€UPS€on€the€cost€of€compliance.€€WeÐ \¬ Ðagree€with€the€district€court€that€there€is€no€such€Ô_ÔquantificationÔ_ÔÐ 2‚ Ðrequirement.€€The€cases€in€this€area€have€looked€to€the€logicalÐ X Ðeffect€that€a€particular€scheme€has€on€the€delivery€of€services€orÐ Þ. Ðthe€setting€of€rates€and€have€not€required€the€presentation€ofÐ ´  Ðempirical€evidence.€€òòSeeóó€òòN.H.€Motor€Transp.€Ass'nóó,€377€F.€Supp.€2dÐ Š Ú Ðat€217€n.€92€(collecting€cases).€€ Ñ  Ñ +Ô_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò10óóThe€parties€devote€a€great€deal€of€argument€to€whether€weÐ ° Ðshould€conduct€our€preemption€analysis€with€a€presumption€againstÐ †Ö Ðpreemption€because€the€state€law€at€issue€was€enacted€to€furtherÐ \¬ ÐMaine's€police„power€interest.€€òòSeeóó€òòRiceóó€v.€òòSanta€Fe€ElevatorÐ 2‚ ÐCorp.óó,€331€U.S.€218,€230€(1947)€(stating€that€a€preemption€analysisÐ X Ðstarts€"with€the€assumption€that€the€historic€police€powers€of€theÐ Þ. ÐStates€were€not€to€be€superseded€by€the€Federal€Act€unless€that€wasÐ ´  Ðthe€clear€and€manifest€purpose€of€Congress").€The€circumstances€inÐ Š Ú Ðwhich€the€presumption€is€to€apply€are€not€altogether€clear.€Ð ` ° ÐòòCompareóó€òòMedtronicóó,€518€U.S.€at€485€(stating€that€the€presumptionÐ 6 †  Ðagainst€preemption€applies€"in€all€pre„emption€cases")€òòwithóó€òòUnitedÐ  \  ÐStatesóó€v.€òòLockeóó,€529€U.S.€89,€108€(2000)€(holding€the€presumptionÐ â 2  Ðinapplicable€where€"the€State€legislates€in€an€area€where€there€hasÐ ¸   Ðbeen€a€history€of€significant€federal€presence").€€In€any€event,Ð ° Ðthe€presumption€can€be€overcome€where€the€congressional€purpose€isÐ †Ö Ðsufficiently€clear.€€òòSeeóó€òòEgelhoffóó€v.€òòEgelhoffóó€532€U.S.€141,€151Ð \¬ Ð(2001).€For€the€reasons€discussed€òòinfraóó,€we€think€that€theÐ 2‚ Ðcongressional€intent€to€preempt€state€police„power€enactments€thatÐ X Ðare€related€to€carrier€prices,€routes,€or€services€is€sufficientlyÐ Þ. Ðclear€to€overcome€any€presumption€that€would€apply€here.€Ð ´  ÐÓÓ ´Ô_ÔÓ  Óà  àòò7óóThe€district€court€found€that€another€section€of€the€TobaccoÐ ° ÐDelivery€Law,€which€requires€the€shipper€of€tobacco€products€toÐ †Ö Ðinform€the€carrier€of€the€age€of€the€purchaser,€was€not€preempted.€Ð \¬ ÐòòId.óó€at€217€(citing€22€M.R.S.A.€ðð€1555„C(3)(A)).€€The€associationsÐ 2‚ Ðhave€not€cross„appealed€from€this€ruling. úÔ_ÔÓ  ÓÔ_ÔÔ_Ôà  àòò12óóThe€Attorney€General€offers€a€narrower€argument€for€excludingÐ ° Ðfrom€FAAAA€preemption€state€laws€intended€to€address€underageÐ †Ö Ðsmoking.€€He€cites€the€Synar€Amendment,€a€federal€law€conditioningÐ \¬ Y Ðthe€states'€receipt€of€certain€federal€funds€on€their€enacting€lawsÐ ° Ðto€ban€the€sale€of€tobacco€products€to€minors.€òòSeeóó€42€U.S.C.€ððÐ †Ö Ð300x„26.€€The€Attorney€General€contends€that€the€Synar€AmendmentÐ \¬ Ðdemonstrates€Congress'€intent€that€the€states€be€able€to€regulateÐ 2‚ Ðthe€delivery€of€tobacco€products€irrespective€of€the€FAAAA.€€WeÐ X Ðdisagree.€€The€Synar€Amendment€indicates€Congress'€intent€that€theÐ Þ. Ðstates€take€the€lead€in€addressing€the€underage€smoking€problem.€Ð ´  ÐòòóóBut€the€Attorney€General€has€not€identified€any€evidence€thatÐ Š Ú ÐCongress€intended€the€states€do€so€in€derogation€of€other€federalÐ ` ° Ðlaws.€€The€FAAAA€and€Synar€Amendment€can€exist€harmoniously€becauseÐ 6 †  Ðthe€states€may€pass€laws€to€curb€underage€smoking€without€passingÐ  \  Ðlaws€"related€to"€carrier€prices,€routes,€or€services.€€òòSeeóó€òòUPS€Ióó,Ð â 2  Ð318€F.3d€at€333„34€(stating€that€courts€should€endeavor€to€readÐ ¸  Ðcongressional€enactments€in€harmony€whenever€possible).€Ý ƒ‚!ÝÔ€X\ÜXXXÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑTRXÜ3Ø'Xà3Ø' Letter3Ø'Letterÿ3Ø'LetterTÑÑ ? ÑÙ*ƒ !Ùò òÓ  ÓÓ  ÓÔ‡ XîÚXXX\ÜÔÔ‡ °"º°X XîÚÔUnited€States€Court€of€AppealsÔ#† XîÚX° °"º#ÔÐ ° ÐÔ‡ „…¯„X XîÚÔFor€the€First€CircuitÔ#† XîÚX„ „…¯x#Ôó óÔ#†X\ÜXX XîÚä#ÔÐ „Ô ÐÓØÓà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  àÌßA€') °°` dE<¹` AßÐ º  Ðà@ìì*ìàˆÌNo.€05„2136Ð Ÿ ï ÐÌà@  ìàNEW€HAMPSHIRE€MOTOR€TRANSPORT€ASSOCIATION;ˆÐ K › Ðà@€€ìàMASSACHUSETTS€MOTOR€TRANSPORTATION€ASSOCIATION,€INC.;ˆÐ ! q Ðà@  ìàVERMONT€TRUCK€&€BUS€ASSOCIATION,€INC.,ˆÐ ÷ G  ÐÌà@ÄÄìàPlaintiffs,€Appellees,ˆÐ £ó  ÐÌà@tt)ìàv.ˆÐ OŸ  ÐÌà@ÜÜ ìàG.€STEVEN€ROWE,€in€his€official€capacity€as€Attorney€GeneralˆÐ ûK  Ðà@ˆˆìàfor€the€State€of€Maine,ˆÐ Ñ! ÐÌà@ ìàDefendant,€Appellant.ˆÐ }Í ÐÌßA€') °°` dE<(` AßÐ )y ÐÌÓ  Óà@@ìì*ìàAPPEAL€FROM€THE€UNITED€STATES€DISTRICT€COURTÐ ^ ÐFOR€THE€DISTRICT€OF€MAINEÐ ä4 Ðà@@ìì*ìà[Hon.€D.€Brock€Hornby,€òòU.S.€District€Judgeóó]Ð º  ÐÌßA€') °°` dE<e` AßÐ f¶ ÐÌà@@„„'ìàBeforeÐ K› ÐÌà@@((ìà€Boudin,€òòChief€Judgeóó,Ð ÷G ÐÌStahl,€òòSenior€Circuit€Judgeóó,€Ð £ó  ÐÌand€Howard,€òòCircuit€Judgeóó.Ð O Ÿ" ÐÌÌßA€') °°` dE<Ð"` AßÐ Ñ"!% ÐÌÓ  Óà  àòòPaul€Sternóó,€Deputy€Attorney€General,€with€whom€òòG.€StevenÐ ¶#' ÐRoweóó,€Attorney€General,€òòMelissa€Reynolds€O'Deaóó,€òòPeter€B.€LaFondóó,Ð Œ$Ü( Ðand€òòChristopher€C.€Taubóó,€Assistant€Attorneys€General,€Office€ofÐ b%² ) Ðthe€Attorney€General,€were€on€brief,€for€appellant.Ð 8&ˆ!* Ðà  àòòRuth€N.€Borensteinóó,€with€whom€òòPaul€T.€Friedmanóó,€òòLawrence€R.Ð '^"+ ÐKatzinóó,€òòMorrison€&€Foerster€LLPóó,€òòMichael€A.€Nelsonóó€and€òòJensenÐ ä'4#, ÐBaird€Gardner€&€Henryóó,€were€on€brief,€for€appellees.Ð º( $- ÐÌÌÔ*‹ƒ'ddd Xdd Xdd X°(#°(#‹ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ,( dd ÔÔ+  ÔÐ <+Œ&0<+Œ& ‹‹ÐÐ SI +ð&1 àøâ@38855„„‰àøâ@‰‹‹SÐÌâ âMay€19,€2006Ð v,Æ'3 ÐÐ RHCL-œ(4" àøâ@38855 àøâ@ ‹‹RÐâ âÐ,"  +ð&5 ? ,ÐÑ  ÑÓÓÑ8€\ÜXXdÖdÈ8ÑÑ€ÑÓ*°,X°` ¨ ƒX°œX*ÓÔ",USú ú, ú (ú:!ú&ú),ÔÓ  ÓÑ€*@¸Ñò òÑ€OYÑà ` àHOWARD,€òòCircuit€Judgeó óóó.€€Ù*‚!ÙIn€2003,€Maine€enacted€a€law€toÐ ° Ðrestrict€and€regulate€the€sale€and€delivery€of€tobacco€productsÐ xÈ Ðpurchased€via€the€internet€or€other€electronic€means.€€SeveralÐ $t Ðtrade€associations,€representing€air€and€motor€carriers€ofÐ Ð  Ðproperty,€brought€this€action€against€the€Maine€Attorney€GeneralÐ | Ì Ðalleging€that€certain€provisions€of€this€law€are€preempted€by€theÐ ( x  ÐFederal€Aviation€Administration€Authorization€Act€of€1994€(FAAAA).Ð Ô$  ÐThe€district€court€granted€summary€judgment€for€the€associationsÐ €Ð  Ðand€enjoined€Maine's€Attorney€General€from€enforcing€the€law.€€WeÐ ,|  Ðaffirm€in€all€respects€but€one.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð Ø( ÐÓ  Óò òI.Ð „Ô ÐÓ  ÓÓÓà ` àA.à ¨ àThe€FAAAAÐ Lœ ÐÌó óÓÓà ` àThere€are€two€FAAAA€preemption€provisions€at€issue€inÐ d Ðthis€case.€€òòSeeóó€Pub.€L.€No.€103„305,€ðð€601;€108€Stat.€1569.€€TheÐ À Ðfirst€provides€that€a€"State€.€.€.€may€not€enact€or€enforce€a€lawÐ l¼ Ð.€.€.€related€to€a€price,€route,€or€service€of€any€motor€carrier€.Ð h Ð.€.€with€respect€to€the€transportation€of€property."€€49€U.S.C.€ððÐ Ä  Ð14501(c)(1).€€The€second€states€that€a€"State€may€not€enact€orÐ p!À" Ðenforce€a€law€.€.€.€related€to€a€price,€route,€or€service€of€an€airÐ #l$ Ðcarrier€or€carrier€affiliated€with€a€direct€air€carrier€throughÐ È$ & Ðcommon€controlling€ownership€when€such€carrier€is€transportingÐ t&Ä!( Ðproperty€by€aircraft€or€by€motor€vehicle€.€.€.€."€€49€U.S.C.€ððÐ ° Ð41713(b)(4)(A).€€Ð \¬ Ðà ` àThese€provisions€combine€to€bar€states€(subject€toÐ X Ðcertain€exceptions€discussed€later)€from€enacting€laws€related€toÐ ´  Ðprices,€routes,€or€services€of€air€or€motor€carriers€of€property.€Ð ` ° ÐThey€are€"intended€to€function€in€the€exact€same€manner€withÐ  \  Ðrespect€to€[their]€preemptive€effects."€€H.R.€Conf.€Rep.€103„677€atÐ ¸  Ð85,€òòreprinted€inóó€1994€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€1757.Ð d´  ÐÓ½Óà ` àò òB.à ¨ àThe€Maine€Tobacco€Delivery€LawÐ `  Ðà ` àÌÓÓà ` àó óIn€2003,€the€Maine€Legislature€adopted€"An€Act€toÐ Ø( ÐRegulate€the€Sale€of€Tobacco€Products€and€to€Prevent€the€Sale€ofÐ „Ô ÐCigarettes€to€Minors."€€òòSeeóó€L.D.€1236€(121st€Maine€Leg.)€(codifiedÐ 0€ Ðat€22€Ô_ÔM.R.S.A.Ô_Ô€ðððð€1551,€1555„C€&€1555„D)€(Tobacco€Delivery€Law).€Ð Ü, ÐThe€Tobacco€Delivery€Law€was€prompted€by€the€recent€increase€inÐ ˆØ Ðinternet€tobacco€sales€which€are€consummated€by€direct€delivery€toÐ 4„ Ðconsumers€through€the€mail€or€by€commercial€carriers.€€òòSeeóóÐ à0 ÐTestimony€of€Representative€Glen€Cummings€Before€the€Joint€StandingÐ ŒÜ  ÐCommittee€on€Health€&€Human€Services€(Apr.€29,€2003).€€ThisÐ 8!ˆ" Ðphenomenon€has€complicated€Maine's€efforts€to€regulate€"the€sale€ofÐ ä"4$ Ðtobacco€products€to€minors"€and€caused€it€to€lose€"tremendous€taxÐ $à& Ðrevenues€as€a€result€of€tax€free€sales€by€unlicensed€companies."Ð <&Œ!( ÐòòId.óó€€The€associations€persuaded€the€district€court€that€ðððð€1555„Ð è'8#* ÐC(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô)€&€1555„D€are€preempted€by€the€FAAAA.Ð  ”)ä$, ÐÓÙÓà ` àò òà ¨ à1.à  àðð€1555„C(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô)Ð ° Ðà ` àÌÓÓà ` àó óMaine's€Tobacco€Delivery€Law€permits€a€licensed€tobaccoÐ xÈ Ðretailer€to€sell€tobacco€products׃ ×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€directly€to€consumers€via€theÐ $t Ðinternet€or€other€electronic€means€so€long€as€the€retailer€takesÐ Ð  Ðspecified€steps€to€ensure€that€sales€are€not€made€to€minors.€€òòSeeóóÐ | Ì Ðòòid.óó€ðððð€1555„C(2)€&€(3).€€One€such€step€requires€the€retailer€to€useÐ ( x  Ða€carrier€that€will€ensure€that:€(1)€the€purchaser€of€the€tobaccoÐ Ô$  Ðproducts€is€the€same€person€as€the€addressee€of€the€package;€(2)Ð €Ð  Ðthe€addressee€is€of€legal€age€to€purchase€tobacco€products€and€signÐ ,|  Ðfor€the€package;€and€(3)€if€the€addressee€is€under€27€years€of€age,Ð Ø( Ðthat€she€show€a€valid€government„issued€identification€verifyingÐ „Ô Ðthat€she€is€old€enough€to€purchase€tobacco€products.€€òòId.óó€ðð€1555„Ð 0€ ÐC(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô).€€Penalties€are€imposed€only€against€the€retailer€forÐ Ü, Ðviolations€of€this€provision.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€ðððð€1555„C(3)(E)&(F).Ð ˆØ ÐÓmÓà ` àà ¨ àò ò2.à  àðð€1555„DÐ 4„ Ðà ` àÌÓÓà ` àó óSection€1555„D€makes€it€illegal€for€any€person€toÐ üL Ðknowingly€deliver€tobacco€products€to€a€Maine€consumer€if€theÐ ¨ø  Ðproducts€were€purchased€from€an€unlicensed€retailer.׃è×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€sectionÐ T!¤" Ðalso€states€that€a€person€delivering€a€package€"is€deemed€to€know"Ð #P$ Ðthat€the€package€contains€tobacco€products€if€it€(1)€so€indicates€Ð ° Ðon€any€side€other€than€the€side€directly€opposite€the€label,€òòseeóóÐ \¬ ÐCode€of€Me.€R.€ch.€203,€ðð€11,€or€(2)€was€shipped€by€a€person€listedÐ X Ðby€the€Attorney€General€as€an€unlicensed€tobacco€retailer.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ׀Р´  ÐÓå#Óà ` àò òC.à ¨ àThe€Effect€of€the€Tobacco€Delivery€Law€on€United€Ð ` ° Ðà ` àà ¨ àParcel€Service€(UPS)ó ó€€Ð D ”  ÐÌÓÓà ` àAs€discussed€in€further€detail€below,€one€way€for€theÐ þ N  Ðassociations€to€prove€that€the€challenged€provisions€of€the€TobaccoÐ ªú  ÐDelivery€Law€are€preempted€by€the€FAAAA€is€to€demonstrate€that€theyÐ V¦  Ðhave€a€forbidden€significant€effect€on€carrier€services.€€òòSeeóó€òòinfraóóÐ R Ðat€25.€€The€associations€have€attempted€to€make€this€showing€byÐ ®þ Ðhighlighting€the€effect€of€the€challenged€provisions€on€UPS,€aÐ Zª Ðmotor/air€carrier€of€property€operating€in€Maine.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð V Ðà ` àUPS,€which€delivers€approximately€65,000€packages€per€dayÐ ² Ðin€Maine,€offers€door„to„door€delivery€service€of€packages€andÐ ^® Ðdelivery€of€packages€on€an€express€basis.€€Its€delivery€operationsÐ  Z Ðfunction€as€an€integrated€system,€requiring€extensive€planning€andÐ ¶ Ðcoordination€among€its€operating€facilities€and€ground€and€airÐ b ²! Ðâ âfleet.€€Delays€and€disruptions€in€the€sorting€and€delivery€ofÐ "^# Ðpackages€can€affect€the€timely€delivery€of€thousands€of€packagesÐ ° Ðwithin€the€UPS€system.Ð \¬ Ðâ âà ` àPrior€to€the€enactment€of€ðð€1555„C(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô),€UPS€did€notÐ X Ðrequire€that€its€drivers€deliver€a€package€only€to€the€addressee,Ð ´  Ðand€it€did€not€require€a€signature€from€the€recipient€of€theÐ ` ° Ðpackage€unless€the€shipper€paid€a€premium€for€this€additionalÐ  \  Ðservice.€€UPS€determined€that€it€would€not€be€feasible€to€alter€itsÐ ¸  Ðdelivery€operations€to€provide€these€new€services€in€Maine,€so€itÐ d´  Ðstopped€delivering€all€tobacco€products€to€Maine€consumers.Ð `  Ðà ` àTo€make€deliveries€of€tobacco€products€to€licensedÐ ¼  Ðretailers€and€distributors€in€Maine€as€permitted€by€ðð€1555„D,€UPSÐ h¸ Ðnow€has€modified€its€uniform€package€delivery€procedures€toÐ d Ðidentify€packages€that€contain€tobacco€products.€€UPS€requires€thatÐ À Ðits€preloaders€in€Maine€(the€employees€who€place€the€packages€onÐ l¼ Ðthe€trucks€for€delivery)€specially€examine€each€package€toÐ h Ðdetermine€€if€it€is€marked€as€containing€tobacco€or€if€the€name€ofÐ Ä Ðthe€addressee€or€shipper€indicates€that€the€package€likely€containsÐ pÀ  Ðtobacco.׃"×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Packages€identified€as€likely€containing€tobaccoÐ !l" Ðproducts€are€then€segregated€so€that€UPS€employees€can€researchÐ È"$ Ðwhether€the€package€is€destined€for€a€licensed€tobacco€retailer€orÐ t$Ä& Ðâ âdistributor.€€If€UPS€determines€that€the€addressee€is€not€aÐ  &p!( Ðlicensed€tobacco€retailer€or€distributor,€it€arranges€to€return€theÐ ° Ðpackage€to€the€shipper€or€otherwise€to€dispose€of€the€package.Ð \¬ Ðâ âà ` àò òD.à ¨ àThe€District€Court€DecisionÐ X Ðà ` àó óProceeding€from€the€premise€that€the€FAAAA€preempts€aÐ Ð  Ðstate€law€if€it€"expressly€references"€a€carrier's€prices,€routes,Ð | Ì Ðor€services€or€has€a€"forbidden€significant€effect"€on€the€same,Ð ( x  Ðthe€district€court€concluded€that€the€challenged€provisions€of€theÐ Ô$  ÐTobacco€Delivery€Law€are€preempted€by€the€FAAAA.€òòSeeóóòòN.H.€MotorÐ €Ð  ÐTransp.€Ass'nóó€v.€òòRoweóó,€377€F.€Supp.€2d€197,€210€(D.€Me.€2005)Ð ,|  Ð(citing€òòUnited€Parcel€Serv.,€Inc.óó€v.€òòFlores„Galarzaóó,€318€F.3d€327,Ð Ø( Ð334„35€(1st€Cir.€2003)€(òòUPS€Ióó))òòóó.€€The€court€determined€that,€whileÐ „Ô Ððð€1555„C(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô)€did€not€expressly€reference€carrier€services€becauseÐ 0€ Ðthat€section€is€directed€only€at€retailers€of€tobacco€products,€itÐ Ü, Ðhas€a€forbidden€significant€effect€on€UPS€because,€for€the€carrierÐ ˆØ Ðto€accept€packages€containing€tobacco€for€delivery€in€Maine,€itÐ 4„ Ðwould€have€to€adopt€procedures€that€would€"alter€[its]€deliveryÐ à0 Ðpractices"€for€these€packages.€€òòId.óó€at€216.Ð ŒÜ  Ðà ` àThe€court€also€ruled€that€ðð€1555„D€both€expresslyÐ 8!ˆ" Ðreferences€and€has€a€forbidden€significant€effect€on€carrierÐ ä"4$ Ðservices.€€It€concluded€that€the€provision€expressly€referencesÐ $à& Ðservices€because€it€prohibits€carriers€from€delivering€a€certainÐ <&Œ!( Ðclass€of€tobacco€products,€i.e.,€tobacco€products€purchased€byÐ è'8#* ÐMaine€consumers€from€unlicensed€retailers.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€at€211„12.€€ItÐ ”)ä$, Ðalso€concluded€that€the€provision€also€has€a€forbidden€significantÐ @+&. Ðeffect€because€it€forced€UPS€to€depart€from€"its€nationally€uniformÐ ° Ðprocedure"€by€inspecting€each€package€to€identify€the€contents.€Ð \¬ ÐòòId.óó€at€212.€€The€Attorney€General€timely€appealed€from€thisÐ X Ðruling.׃0×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ׀Р´  ÐÓ  Óò òII.Ð ` ° ÐÓ  Óà ` àA.à ¨ àJurisdictionÐ ( x  Ðà ` àó óBefore€reaching€the€merits€of€the€Attorney€General'sÐ ð@  Ðappeal,€we€consider€two€threshold€jurisdictional€issues.€€TheÐ œì  ÐAttorney€General€asserts€that€the€associations€lack€standing€andÐ H˜  Ðthat€the€action€is€moot€in€light€of€events€occurring€subsequent€toÐ ôD Ðthe€noticing€of€the€appeal.Ð  ð Ðà ` àò òà ¨ à1.à  àStandingÐ Lœ Ðà ` àó óThe€associations€invoke€the€representational€standingÐ d Ðdoctrine€recognized€by€the€Supreme€Court€in€òòHuntóó€v.€òòWashingtonÐ À ÐState€Apple€Adver.€Comm'nóó,€432€U.S.€333,€343€(1977).€€Under€thisÐ l¼ Ðdoctrine,€"an€association€has€standing€to€bring€suit€on€behalf€ofÐ h Ðits€members€when:€(a)€its€members€would€otherwise€have€standing€toÐ Ä  Ðsue€in€their€own€right;€(b)€the€interests€it€seeks€to€protect€areÐ p!À" Ðgermane€to€the€organization's€purpose;€and€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€neither€the€claimÐ #l$ Ðasserted€nor€the€relief€requested€requires€the€participation€ofÐ È$ & Ðindividualized€members€in€the€lawsuit."€€òòId.óó€€Ð t&Ä!( Ðà ` àThe€Attorney€General€focuses€his€argument€on€the€thirdÐ ° ÐòòHuntóó€factor.€€He€contends€that€evidence€concerning€the€effect€thatÐ \¬ Ðthe€challenged€provisions€of€the€Tobacco€Delivery€Law€have€on€UPSÐ X Ðsuffices€only€to€justify€preemption€of€the€challenged€provisions€asÐ ´  Ðto€UPS.€€Preemption€against€other€carriers€should€occur€only€to€theÐ ` ° Ðextent€that€the€other€carriers€individually€prove€that€theÐ  \  Ðchallenged€provisions€have€a€forbidden€significant€effect€on€theirÐ ¸  Ðprices,€routes,€or€services.€€€Ð d´  Ðà ` àThe€district€court€rejected€this€argument,€observing€thatÐ `  Ð"[a]ssociational€standing€is€.€.€.€granted€in€cases€seekingÐ ¼  Ðinjunctive€relief€rather€than€damages,€because€individualized€proofÐ h¸ Ðis€not€necessary€and€the€relief€usually€inures€to€the€benefit€ofÐ d Ðall€members€injured."€€òòN.H.€Motor€Transp.€Ass'nóó€v.€òòRoweóó,€324€F.Ð À ÐSupp.€2d€231,€236€(D.€Me.€2004).òòóó€€Because€the€associations€onlyÐ l¼ Ðsought€an€injunction€and€a€declaratory€judgment€against€theÐ h Ðchallenged€provisions,€the€court€ruled€that€the€third€òòHuntóó€factorÐ Ä Ðwas€satisfied.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€at€236€(citing€òòPlayboy€€Enters.,€Inc.óó€v.Ð pÀ  ÐòòPub.€Serv.€Comm'n€of€P.R.óó,€906€F.2d€25,€35€(1st€Cir.€1990)).Ð !l" Ðà ` àAfter€the€district€court€issued€this€ruling,€we€clarifiedÐ È"$ Ðthe€requirements€for€establishing€the€third€òòHuntóó€factor.€€In€soÐ t$Ä& Ðdoing,€we€acknowledged€that€"there€is€no€well€developed€test€inÐ  &p!( Ðthis€circuit€as€to€how€the€third€prong€of€the€òòHuntóó€test€.€.€.Ð Ì'#* Ðapplies€in€cases€where€injunctive€relief€is€sought."€Ð x)È$, ÐòòPharmaceutical€Care€Mgmt.€Ass'nóó€v.€òòRoweóó,€429€F.3d€294,€313„14€(1stÐ $+t&. ÐÔ_ÔCir.€2005).€€But€we€did€not€embrace€the€proposition€that,€underÐ ° ÐòòPlayboy€Enters.óó€the€third€òòHuntóó€factor€is€always€satisfied€where€anÐ \¬ Ðassociation€seeks€injunctive€relief€on€behalf€of€all€of€itsÐ X Ðmembers.€€òòSeeóó€òòRoweóó,€429€F.3d€at€314€("òòPlayboyóó€is€not€an€open€doorÐ ´  Ðfor€association€standing€in€all€injunction€cases€where€memberÐ ` ° Ðcircumstances€differ€and€proof€of€them€is€important.").€€WeÐ  \  Ðconcluded€that€representational€standing€is€inappropriate€ifÐ ¸  Ðadjudicating€the€merits€of€an€association's€claim€requires€theÐ d´  Ðcourt€to€engage€in€a€"fact„intensive„individual€inquiry."€€òòId.óóÐ `  Ð(quoting€òòPenn.€Psychiatric€Soc.óó€v.€òòGreen€Spring€Health€Servs.,Ð ¼  ÐInc.óó,€280€F.3d€278,€287€(3d€Cir.€2002)).€€We€therefore€turn€toÐ h¸ Ðwhether€the€associations'€preemption€claim€requires€a€sufficientlyÐ d Ðfact„intensive€inquiry€to€preclude€representational€standing.Ð À Ðà ` àThe€FAAAA€provides€that€a€state€law€is€preempted€if€itÐ l¼ Ðrelates€to€the€prices,€routes,€or€services€of€"òòanyóó€motor€carrier"Ð h Ðor€"òòanóó€air€carrier."€€49€U.S.C.€ðððð€14501(c)€&€41713(b)(4)(A)Ð Ä Ð(emphases€supplied).€€"Any"€means€"one€.€.€.€of€whatever€kind,"€andÐ pÀ  Ð"an"€means€"one."€€òòMerriam€Webster's€Collegiate€Dictionaryóó€at€40,Ð !l" Ð53€(10th€ed.€2001).€€The€language€of€the€FAAAA€accordingly€suggestsÐ È"$ Ðthat,€if€a€state€law€is€preempted€as€to€one€carrier,€it€isÐ t$Ä& Ðpreempted€as€to€all€carriers.׃#×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€òòSeeóóòòN.H.€Motor€Transp.€Ass'nóó,€Ô_Ô377Ð  &p!( ÐF.€Supp.€2d€at€219.€€Such€a€reading€accords€with€one€of€the€FAAAA'sÐ ° Ðcentral€purposes:€to€establish€a€"level€playing€field"€amongÐ \¬ Ðcarriers.€òòóóH.R.€Conf.€Rep.€103„677€at€85,€òòreprinted€inóó€1994Ð X ÐÔ_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€1757;€òòseeóó€òòCalifornians€for€Safe€Dump€Truck€Transp.óóÐ ´  Ðv.€òòMendoncaóó,€152€F.3d€1184,€1187€(9th€Cir.€1998).€€If€preemptionÐ ` ° Ðwere€judged€on€a€carrier„specific€basis,€the€result€would€be€aÐ  \  Ð"patchwork"€of€state€laws€applying€to€some€carriers€and€not€toÐ ¸  Ðothers,€depending€on€which€carriers€proceeded€to€litigation.€€H.R.Ð d´  ÐConf.€Rep.€103„677€at€87€òòreprinted€inóó€1994€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€1759.€Ð `  ÐSuch€a€result€would€undermine€Congress'€goal€of€encouragingÐ ¼  Ðuniformity€in€carrier€regulation.€€Thus,€the€associations€canÐ h¸ Ðprevail€by€establishing€that€the€challenged€provisions€of€theÐ d ÐTobacco€Delivery€Law€have€a€forbidden€significant€effect€on€oneÐ À Ðcarrier.€€The€district€court€correctly€ruled€that€the€associationsÐ l¼ Ðhave€standing€to€press€their€preemption€claim.€€òòSeeóó€òòRoweóó,€429€F.3dÐ h Ðat€314.׃$×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð Ä Ðà ` àò òà ¨ à2.à  àMootnessÐ pÀ  Ðà ` àó óAfter€the€district€court€granted€summary€judgment,€UPSÐ 8!ˆ" Ðsettled€an€enforcement€action€brought€by€the€New€York€AttorneyÐ ä"4$ ÐGeneral€under€a€New€York€law€restricting€the€ability€of€carriers€toÐ ° Ðdeliver€cigarettes€to€consumers.€€òòSeeóó€N.Y.€Pub.€Health€Law€ðð€1399€„Ð \¬ Ðll(2)€(McKinney€2001).€€In€that€settlement,€UPS€promised€to€stopÐ X Ð"shipping€cigarettes€to€individual€consumers€in€the€United€StatesÐ ´  Ðwhile€still€permitting€lawful€shipments€of€cigarettes€to€licensedÐ ` ° Ðtobacco€businesses."€€To€fulfill€this€promise,€UPS€agreed€(1)€toÐ  \  Ðidentify€all€shippers€that€may€be€cigarette€retailers€and€adviseÐ ¸  Ðthem€that€UPS€will€not€accept€cigarettes€for€delivery€to€consumers;Ð d´  Ð(2)€to€discipline€shippers€that€violate€UPS's€non„delivery€policy;Ð `  Ð(3)€to€impose€measures€to€ensure€that€employees€"actively"€look€forÐ ¼  Ðindications€that€a€package€contains€cigarettes;€and€(4)€to€instructÐ h¸ Ðdrivers€not€to€deliver€cigarette€packages€to€consumers.€€Ð d Ðà ` àThe€Attorney€General€argues€that,€as€a€result€of€theÐ À Ðsettlement,€this€appeal€has€become€moot,€the€judgment€should€beÐ l¼ Ðvacated€and€the€case€should€be€dismissed.€€òòSeeóó€òòDuke€Power€Co.óó€v.Ð h ÐòòGreenwood€Countyóó,€229€U.S.€259,€267€(1936)€(stating€that€where€aÐ Ä Ðcase€becomes€moot€while€on€appeal,€the€appellate€court€must€setÐ pÀ  Ðaside€the€judgment€and€remand€the€case€with€instructions€that€it€beÐ !l" Ðdismissed).€€He€contends€that,€by€agreeing€not€to€deliverÐ È"$ Ðcigarettes€directly€to€consumers€throughout€the€United€States€andÐ t$Ä& Ðdirecting€employees€actively€to€look€for€cigarettes,€UPS€is€noÐ  &p!( Ðlonger€affected€by€the€Tobacco€Delivery€Ô_ÔLaw.€Ô_ÔÐ Ì'#* Ðà ` àArticle€III€considerations€require€that€an€actual€case€orÐ x)È$, Ðcontroversy€exist€between€the€parties€throughout€the€course€ofÐ $+t&. Ðlitigation.€€òòSeeóó€òòRamirezóó€v.€òòSanchez€Ramosóó,€438€F.3d€92,€100€(1stÐ ° ÐCir.€2006).€€A€case€must€be€dismissed€as€moot€"if,€at€some€timeÐ \¬ Ðafter€the€institution€of€the€action,€the€parties€no€longer€have€aÐ X Ðlegally€cognizable€stake€in€the€outcome."€€òòGoodwinóó€v.€òòC.N.J.,€Inc.óó,Ð ´  Ð436€F.3d€44,€46€(1st€Cir.€2006).€€This€rule€applies€even€where€theÐ ` ° Ðcase€becomes€moot€while€pending€on€appeal.€€òòSeeóó€òòGreat€Western€SugarÐ  \  ÐCo.óó€v.€òòNelsonóó,€442€U.S.€92,€93€(1979)€(per€curiam).€€But€"[t]heÐ ¸  Ðburden€of€establishing€mootness€rests€squarely€on€the€party€raisingÐ d´  Ðit,€and€the€burden€is€a€heavy€one."€€òòMangualóó€v.€òòRoger„Sabatóó,€317Ð `  ÐF.3d€45,€60€(1st€Cir.€2003)€(citation€omitted).€€To€establishÐ ¼  Ðmootness,€the€party€raising€it€must€show€that€the€court€cannotÐ h¸ Ðgrant€any€"effectual€relief€whatever"€to€its€opponent.€€òòChurch€ofÐ d ÐScientology€of€Cal.óóv.€òòUnited€Statesóó,€506€U.S.€9,€12€(1992).€Ð À Ðà ` àThe€Attorney€General€has€not€met€this€heavy€burden.€€TheÐ l¼ ÐNew€York€settlement€agreement€applies€only€to€the€delivery€ofÐ h Ðcigarettes,€€but€the€Tobacco€Delivery€Law€applies€to€"any€form€ofÐ Ä Ðtobacco€and€any€material€or€device€used€in€the€smoking,€chewing€orÐ pÀ  Ðother€form€of€tobacco€consumption."€€22€Ô_ÔM.R.S.A.Ô_Ô€ðð€1551„3.€€UPSÐ !l" Ðcould€therefore€adhere€to€the€terms€of€the€settlement€agreement€andÐ È"$ Ðnevertheless€violate€the€Tobacco€Delivery€Law€by€unlawfullyÐ t$Ä& Ðdelivering€non„cigarette€tobacco€products.€€Because€enjoining€theÐ  &p!( Ðchallenged€provisions€would€permit€UPS€to€deliver€òòallóó€tobaccoÐ Ì'#* Ðproducts,€effectual€relief€remains€available.Ð x)È$, ÐÐ $+t&. Ðà ` àò òB.à ¨ àPreemptionÐ ° Ðà ` àó óWe€turn€now€to€the€merits€of€the€district€court'sÐ xÈ Ðpreemption€ruling.€€We€review€the€ruling€de€novo,€considering€theÐ $t Ðrecord€and€all€reasonable€inferences€in€the€light€most€favorable€toÐ Ð  Ðthe€Attorney€General.€€òòSeeóóòòMullinóó€v.€òòRaytheon€Co.óó,€164€F.3d€696,Ð | Ì Ð698€(1st€Cir.€1999).€€We€may€affirm€on€any€ground€revealed€by€theÐ ( x  Ðrecord.€€òòSeeóó€òòHoulton€Citizens'€Coalitionóó€v.€òòHoultonóó,€175€F.3d€178,Ð Ô$  Ð183„84€(1st€Cir.€1999).Ð €Ð  Ðà ` àThe€Attorney€General€presents€two€arguments€for€reversal.€Ð ,|  ÐFirst,€he€contends€that€the€FAAAA€does€not€preempt€state€lawsÐ Ø( Ðenacted€pursuant€to€a€state's€police€power€to€protect€the€healthÐ „Ô Ðand€welfare€of€its€citizens.€€The€Attorney€General€asserts€that€theÐ 0€ ÐFAAAA€preempts€only€state€laws€that€impose€traditional€economicÐ Ü, Ðregulation€on€carriers€„„€e.g.€entry€and€commodity€controls,€tariffÐ ˆØ Ðfiling€requirements,€and€price€ceilings.€€Because€the€TobaccoÐ 4„ ÐDelivery€Law€does€not€impose€such€traditional€economicÐ à0 Ðrestrictions,€the€Attorney€General€argues€that€the€FAAAA€does€notÐ ŒÜ  Ðapply.€€Alternatively,€the€Attorney€General€contends€that,€even€ifÐ 8!ˆ" Ðthe€Act€applies,€neither€challenged€provision€is€"related€to"Ð ä"4$ Ðcarrier€services€within€the€meaning€of€the€FAAAA.Ð $à& ÐÓÓà ` àò òà ¨ à1.à  àApplicability€of€the€FAAAA€to€a€State's€Ð <&Œ!( Ðà ` àà ¨ àà  àPolice„Power€EnactmentsÐ  'p") ÐÌà ` àó óÓwpÓA€fundamental€tenet€of€our€federalist€system€is€thatÐ è(8$+ Ðconstitutionally€enacted€federal€law€is€supreme€to€state€law.€€òòSeeóóÐ ”*ä%- ÐU.S.€Const.€Art.€VI.€cl.€2.€€As€a€result,€federal€law€sometimesÐ @,'/ Ðpreempts€state€law€either€expressly€or€by€implication.€€òòSeeóó€òòGadeóó€v.Ð ° ÐòòNat'l€Solid€Wastes€Mgmt.€Ass'nóó,€505€U.S.€88,€98€(1992).€"ExpressÐ \¬ Ðpreemption€occurs€when€Congress€has€unmistakably€.€.€.€ordainedÐ X Ðthat€its€enactments€alone€are€to€regulate€a€subject€and€state€lawsÐ ´  Ðregulating€that€subject€must€fall."€€òòMass.€Ass'n€of€HealthÐ ` ° ÐMaintenance€Organizationsóó€v.€òòRuthardtóó,€194€F.3d€176,€179€(1st€Cir.Ð  \  Ð1999)€(citation€omitted).€€In€every€preemption€case,€"the€purposeÐ ¸  Ðof€Congress€is€the€ultimate€touchstone."€€òòMedtronic,€Inc.óó€v.€òòLohróó,Ð d´  Ð518€U.S.€470,€485€(1996).€€The€primary€focus€is€on€the€"plainÐ `  Ðwording"€of€the€statute€because€the€text€"contains€the€bestÐ ¼  Ðevidence€of€Congress'€pre„emptive€intent."€€òòSprietsmaóó€v.€òòMercuryÐ h¸ ÐMarineóó,€537€U.S.€51,€62€(2002).€€But€"[a]lso€relevant€is€theÐ d Ðstructure€and€purpose€of€the€statute€as€a€whole€as€revealed€.€.€.Ð À Ðthrough€the€reviewing€court's€reasoned€understanding€of€the€way€inÐ l¼ Ðwhich€Congress€intended€the€statute€and€its€surrounding€regulatoryÐ h Ðscheme€to€affect€business,€consumers€and€the€law."€€òòMedtronicóó,€518Ð Ä ÐU.S.€at€486.׃,×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð pÀ  Ðà ` àWe€begin€with€the€text.€€òòóóAs€mentioned€above,€the€FAAAAÐ ° Ðprohibits€states€from€enacting€laws€"related€to€a€price,€route,€orÐ \¬ Ðservice"€of€a€carrier.€€òòóó49€U.S.C.€ðððð€14501Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô)€&€41713(b)(4)(A).€Ð X ÐThis€language€was€patterned€after€the€preemption€provision€of€theÐ ´  ÐAirline€Deregulation€Act€of€1978.€€òòSeeóóH.R.€Conf.€Rep.€103„677€atÐ ` ° Ð85,€òòreprinted€inóó€1994€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€1757,€1759;€òòMendoncaóó,€152€F.3dÐ  \  Ðat€1184;€òòDesardouinóó€v.€òòUnited€Parcel€Serv.,€Inc.óó,€285€F.€Supp.€2dÐ ¸  Ð153,€162€(D.€Conn.€2003).€€Therefore,€in€addition€to€casesÐ d´  Ðinterpreting€the€FAAAA,€we€look€to€cases€interpreting€the€AirlineÐ `  ÐDeregulation€Act.€€òòUPS€Ióó,€318€F.3d€at€335„36;€òòMastercraftÐ ¼  ÐInteriors,€Ltd.óó€v.€òòABF€Freight€Sys.,€Inc.óó,€284€F.€Supp.€2d€284,€287Ð h¸ Ð(D.€Md.€2003).Ð d Ðà ` àThe€seminal€case€is€òòMoralesóó€v.€òòTrans€World€Airlines,Ð À ÐInc.óó,€504€U.S.€374€(1992).€€Like€the€FAAAA,€the€version€of€theÐ l¼ ÐAirline€Deregulation€Act€considered€in€òòMoralesóó€preempted€state€lawsÐ h Ð"relating€to€rates,€routes€or€services€of€any€air€carrier."׃&@×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€TheÐ Ä ÐCourt€identified€"relating€to"€as€the€key€phrase€in€determining€theÐ ° Ðbreadth€of€the€preemption€provision€and€concluded€that€the€"wordsÐ \¬ Ð.€.€.€express€a€broad€pre„emptive€purpose."€€òòId.óó€at€383.€€It€reliedÐ X Ðon€several€cases€in€which€the€Court€had€interpreted€a€similarly„Ð ´  Ðworded€provision€of€the€Employment€Retirement€Security€Act€of€1974Ð ` ° Ð(ERISA)€preempting€all€state€laws€that€"relate€to"€an€employeeÐ  \  Ðbenefit€plan.€€òòId.óó€at€384.€€The€òòMoralesóó€Court€emphasized€that€thisÐ ¸  Ðlanguage€had€an€"expansive€sweep"€and€that€it€was€"conspicuous€forÐ d´  Ðits€breadth."€€òòId.óó€€In€light€of€Congress'€use€of€similarly€broadÐ `  Ðlanguage,€the€Court€concluded€that€Congress€intended€the€AirlineÐ ¼  ÐDeregulation€Act€to€preempt€any€state€law€that€has€"a€connectionÐ h¸ Ðwith€or€reference€to€airline€rates,€routes,€or€services."€€òòId.Ð d Ðà ` àóóThe€FAAAA's€drafters€were€familiar€with€òòMoralesóó€andÐ À Ðapproved€of€its€reasoning.€€The€Conference€Committee€ReportÐ l¼ Ðexplains€that€"the€conferees€[did]€not€intend€to€alter€the€broadÐ h Ðpreemption€interpretation€adopted€by€the€United€States€SupremeÐ Ä ÐCourt€in€òòMorales€óó.€.€.€."€€H.R.€Conf.€Rep.€103„677€at€83,€òòreprintedÐ pÀ  Ðinóó€1994€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€1755.€€The€sweep€of€the€FAAAA's€text€andÐ !l" Ðthe€drafters'€expressed€intent€to€use€òòMoralesóó€as€a€roadmap€areÐ È"$ Ðstrong€evidence€that€the€FAAAA€was€not€intended€to€preempt€only€aÐ t$Ä& Ðnarrow€class€of€economic€regulations€while€excluding€the€many€lawsÐ  &p!( Ðenacted€by€the€states€under€their€police€powers.€€If€Congress€hadÐ Ì'#* Ðsuch€a€limited€purpose€in€mind,€it€likely€would€have€employedÐ x)È$, Ðnarrower€language€in€fashioning€the€FAAAA€preemption€provisions.€Ð $+t&. ÐòòCf.óó€òòBotzóó€v.€òòOmni€Air€Int'lóó,€286€F.3d€488,€493„94€(8th€Cir.€2002)Ð ° Ð("Although€Congress€could€easily€have€selected€more€restrictiveÐ \¬ Ðterminology€to€describe€the€type€of€.€.€.€enactment€the€[AirlineÐ X ÐDeregulation€Act]€pre„empts,€the€provision€as€written€is€withoutÐ ´  Ðlanguage€that€would€produce€a€more€limited€pre„emptive€effect.").Ð ` ° Ðà ` àThe€Attorney€General€argues€that€we€should€disregardÐ  \  ÐòòMoralesóó€because,€post„òòMoralesóó,€the€Supreme€Court€has€narrowed€itsÐ ¸  Ðunderstanding€of€ERISA's€"relat[ing]€to"€language.€€We€previouslyÐ d´  Ðrejected€this€identical€argument:€€Ð `  ÐÒ` °ÒÓÓà ` àThe€Secretary€argues€that€the€broad€preemption€Ð ¼  Ðà ` àstandard€adopted€in€òòMoralesóó€has€been€€overruledÐ ’â Ðà ` àby€a€number€of€Supreme€Court€casesÐ h¸ Ðà ` ànarrowing€the€preemptive€effect€of€[ERISA].€Ð >Ž Ðà ` àWhile€the€òòMoralesóó€Court€undoubtedly€took€its€Ð d Ðà ` àinterpretive€cues€from€the€ERISA€preemption€Ð ê: Ðà ` àjurisprudence€then€in€existence,€it€does€not€Ð À Ðà ` àfollow€that€any€change€in€the€ERISA€law€Ð –æ Ðà ` ànecessitates€a€parallel€change€in€the€law€Ð l¼ Ðà ` àaffecting€.€.€.€carriers.€€As€Judge€EasterbrookÐ B’ Ðà ` àhas€put€it:€€[I]f€developments€in€pension€Ð h Ðà ` àlaw€à ¨ àhave€under„cut€holdings€in€air„Ð î> Ðà ` àtransportation€à X àlaw,€it€is€for€the€Supreme€Ð Ä Ðà ` àCourt€itself€to€make€à ° àthe€adjustments.€€Our€Ð šê Ðà ` àmarching€orders€are€clear:€follow€decisions€Ð pÀ  Ðà ` àuntil€the€Supreme€Court€overrules€them.Ð F –! ÐÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÌÒ` ÒòòÓÓUPS€Ióó,€318€F.3d€at€335€n.19€(quoting€òòUnited€Airlines,€Inc.óó€v.€òòMesaÐ ò!B# ÐAirlines,€Inc.óó,€219€F.3d€605,€608€(7th€Cir.€2000)).€€AbsentÐ ž#î% Ðextraordinary€circumstances€not€present€here,€we€are€not€at€libertyÐ J%š ' Ðto€disregard€this€ruling.€€òòSeeóó€òòUnited€Statesóó€v.€òòWoganóó,€938€F.2dÐ ö&F") Ð1446,€1449€(1st€Cir.€1991)€("We€have€held,€time€and€again,€that€inÐ ¢(ò#+ Ðâ âa€multi„panel€circuit,€prior€panel€decisions€are€binding€upon€newlyÐ N*ž%- Ðconstituted€panels€in€the€absence€of€supervening€authorityÐ ° Ðsufficient€to€warrant€disregard€of€established€precedent.").€€Ð \¬ Ðâ âà ` àWe€look€also€to€the€FAAAA's€structure€and€legislativeÐ X Ðhistory.€€The€FAAAA€includes€a€series€of€exceptions€to€the€generalÐ ´  Ðpreemption€rule.€€The€excepted€areas€are:Ð ` ° ÐÒ` ÒÓÓà ` àthe€safety€regulatory€authority€of€a€Ð  \  Ðà ` àState€with€respect€to€motor€vehicles,€Ð â 2  Ðà ` àthe€authority€of€a€State€to€impose€Ð ¸  Ðà ` àhighway€route€controls€or€limitations€based€on€Ð ŽÞ  Ðà ` àthe€size€or€weight€of€the€motor€vehicle€or€the€Ð d´  Ðà ` àhazardous€nature€of€the€cargo,€or€the€authorityÐ :Š  Ðà ` àof€a€State€to€regulate€motor€carriers€with€Ð `  Ðà ` àregard€to€minimum€amounts€of€financial€Ð æ6 Ðà ` àresponsibility€relating€to€insurance€Ð ¼  Ðà ` àrequirements€and€self„insurance€authorization.Ð ’â ÐÌÒ` ÒÓÓ49€U.S.C.€ðððð€14501(c)(2)€&€41713(b)(4)(B)(i).€€The€Attorney€General€Ð >Ž Ðacknowledges€that€the€challenged€provisions€of€the€Tobacco€DeliveryÐ ê: ÐLaw€do€not€fall€within€any€of€these€exceptions.€€He€contends,Ð –æ Ðhowever,€that€these€statutory€exceptions€suggest€broaderÐ B’ Ðcongressional€purpose€to€permit€states€to€regulate€carriers€toÐ î> Ðprotect€citizen€health€and€safety.€€The€Attorney€General€points€toÐ šê Ða€passage€from€the€FAAAA's€legislative€history€indicating€that€theÐ F –! Ðenumerated€exceptions€were€"not€intended€to€be€all€inclusive,"€€H.R.Ð ò!B# ÐConf.€Rep.€103„677€at€84,€òòreprinted€inóó€1994€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€1756,€toÐ ž#î% Ðargue€that€we€may€establish€an€additional€exception€to€FAAAAÐ J%š ' Ðpreemption€for€laws€enacted€pursuant€to€a€state's€police€power€toÐ ö&F") Ðprotect€the€health€and€welfare€of€its€citizens.Ð ¢(ò#+ Ðà ` àWe€have€cautioned€that€an€overly€broad€interpretation€ofÐ N*ž%- Ðthe€FAAAA€exceptions€"would€swallow€the€rule€of€preemption."€€òòUnitedÐ ú+J'/ ÐParcel€Serv.,€Inc.óó€v.€òòFlores„Galarzaóó,€385€F.3d€9,€14€(1st€Cir.€2004)Ð ° Ð(òòUPS€IIóó).€€An€exclusion€from€preemption€for€police„power€enactmentsÐ \¬ Ðwould€surely€"swallow€the€rule€of€preemption,"€as€most€state€lawsÐ X Ðare€enacted€pursuant€to€this€authority.€€òòId.óó€€The€exceptionsÐ ´  Ðpreserving€the€states'€authority€to€regulate€motor€vehicles€do€notÐ ` ° Ðsupport€the€Attorney€General's€argument.€€òòSeeóó€òòid.óó€(rejecting€anÐ  \  Ðargument€that€the€FAAAA€preemption€exceptions€indicate€aÐ ¸  Ðcongressional€intent€to€preserve€state€authority€over€safety€issuesÐ d´  Ðgenerally).Ð `  Ðà ` àWhile€the€statute's€structure€does€not€support€theÐ ¼  ÐAttorney€General's€police„power€argument,€there€is€some€support€inÐ h¸ Ðthe€legislative€history€for€his€view€that€the€FAAAA€preempts€onlyÐ d Ðstate€economic€regulation.€€The€Conference€Committee€Report€observedÐ À Ðthat€"[s]tate€economic€regulation€of€motor€carriers€.€.€.€is€a€hugeÐ l¼ Ðproblem€for€national€and€regional€carriers€attempting€to€conduct€aÐ h Ðstandard€way€of€doing€business."€€H.R.€Conf.€Rep.€No.€103„677€at€85,Ð Ä Ðòòreprinted€inóó€1994€Ô_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€1757.€€The€conferees€identifiedÐ pÀ  Ð"typical€forms"€of€harmful€regulation€to€include€"entry€controls,Ð !l" Ðtariff€filing,€price€regulation,"€and€regulation€of€the€"types€ofÐ È"$ Ðcommodities€carried."€€òòId.óó€at€1758.€€This€history€led€the€SupremeÐ t$Ä& ÐCourt€to€remark€that€"the€problem€to€which€the€[FAAAA]€congressionalÐ  &p!( Ðconferees€attended€was€state€economic€regulation."€€òòColumbusóó€v.€òòOursÐ Ì'#* ÐGarage€&€Wreckers€Serv.óó,€536€U.S.€424,€440€(2002).€€€Ð x)È$, Ðà ` àThis€history,€however,€does€not€indicate€that€preemptingÐ $+t&. Ðeconomic€regulation€was€the€FAAAA's€only€purpose.€€And,€in€anyÐ ° Ðevent,€€the€legislative€history€cannot€trump€the€statute's€text.€Ð \¬ ÐòòSeeóó€òòCipolloneóó€v.€òòLiggett€Group,€Inc.óó,€505€U.S.€504,€521€(1992)Ð X Ð(declining€to€adopt€a€limited€interpretation€of€a€preemptionÐ ´  Ðprovision€suggested€by€legislative€history€because€"the€language€ofÐ ` ° Ðthe€[cigarette€labeling]€Act€plainly€reaches"€further);€òòòòóóMoralesóó,€504Ð  \  ÐU.S.€at€385€n.2€(The€"legislative€history€need€not€confirm€theÐ ¸  Ðdetails€of€changes€in€the€law€effected€by€statutory€language€beforeÐ d´  Ðwe€will€interpret€that€language€according€to€its€natural€meaning.").€Ð `  ÐCongress€often€acts€to€address€a€specific€problem€but€ultimatelyÐ ¼  Ðsettles€on€a€broader€remedy.€€€òòSeeóó€òòPenn.€Dep't€of€Corr.óó€v.€òòYeskeyóó,Ð h¸ Ð524€U.S.€206,€213€(1998)€("[T]he€fact€that€a€statute€can€be€appliedÐ d Ðin€situations€not€expressly€anticipated€by€Congress€does€notÐ À Ðdemonstrate€ambiguity.€€It€demonstrates€breadth.").Ð l¼ ÐÔ‡X\ÜXXX\ÜÔà ` àIn€addition,€the€legislative€history€reveals€a€second€goalÐ h Ðfor€FAAAA€preemption€which€is€inconsistent€with€the€Attorney'sÐ Ä ÐGeneral€argument:€"to€create€a€completely€level€playing€fieldÐ pÀ  Ðbetween€air€carriers€.€.€.€on€the€one€hand€and€motor€carriers€on€theÐ !l" Ðother."€€H.R.€Conf.€Rep.€103„677€at€85,€òòreprinted€inóó€1994Ð È"$ ÐÔ_ÔU.S.C.C.A.N.Ô_Ô€at€1757.€€In€other€words,€the€conferees€intended€theÐ t$Ä& Ðscope€of€FAAAA€and€Airline€Deregulation€Act€preemption€to€beÐ  &p!( Ðcoterminous.€€òòSeeóó€Ô#†X\ÜXXX\Ü¿§#ÔòòAce€Auto€Body€&€Towing€Ltd.óó€v.€òòCity€of€New€Yorkóó,Ð Ì'#* Ðâ â171€F.3d€765,€772€(2d€Cir.€1999);€òòMendoncaóó,€152€F.3d€at€1187.€€€Ð x)È$, Ðà ` àIn€the€Airline€Deregulation€Act€context,€the€Supreme€CourtÐ ° Ðâ âhas€focused€on€the€effect€that€a€state€law€has€on€carrierÐ \¬ Ðoperations,€not€on€the€state's€purpose€for€enacting€the€law.€€InÐ X ÐòòMoralesóó,€the€Court€found€that€the€Airline€Deregulation€Act€preemptedÐ ´  Ða€directive€promulgated€by€several€state€attorneys€general€informingÐ ` ° Ðairlines€that€certain€advertising€practices€would€be€considered€toÐ  \  Ðviolate€state€consumer„protection€laws.€€504€U.S.€at€379.€€And,€inÐ ¸  ÐòòAmerican€Airlines,€Inc.óó€v.€òòWolensóó,€513€U.S.€219,€227„28€(1995),€theÐ d´  ÐCourt€held€that€the€Airline€Deregulation€Act€preempted€a€cause€ofÐ `  Ðaction€under€the€Illinois€Consumer€Fraud€Act€concerning€theÐ ¼  Ðredemption€of€frequent„flier€miles.€€In€both€cases,€the€Court'sÐ h¸ Ðpreemption€analysis€centered€on€the€impact€that€the€challenged€stateÐ d Ðlaws€had€on€airline€services€and€rates€and€not€on€the€fact€that€theÐ À Ðpreempted€laws€were€enacted€pursuant€to€the€states'€police€power€toÐ l¼ Ðcombat€consumer€fraud.€€òòSeeóó€òòFla.€Lime€&€Avocado€Growersóó€v.€òòPaulóó,€Ð h Ð373€U.S.€132,€150€(1973)€(describing€the€traditional€state€authorityÐ Ä Ðto€pass€laws€to€combat€consumer€fraud).€€€The€Court€reached€theseÐ pÀ  Ðconclusions€over€dissents€by€Justice€Stevens€arguing€(similarly€toÐ !l" Ðthe€Attorney€General€here)€that€the€state€laws€at€issue€should€notÐ È"$ Ðbe€preempted€because€there€was€insufficient€evidence€ofÐ t$Ä& Ðcongressional€intent€to€preempt€state€police„power€enactments.€€òòSeeóóÐ  &p!( ÐòòAm.€Airlinesóó,€513€U.S.€at€235„31€(Steven,€J.€dissenting€in€part);Ð Ì'#* Ðâ âòòMoralesóó,€504€U.S.€at€419„27€(Stevens,€J.,€dissenting).€Ð x)È$, Ðà ` àòòMoralesóó€and€òòAmerican€Airlinesóó€thus€teach€that,€under€theÐ ° Ðâ âAirline€Deregulation€Act,€the€focus€should€be€on€the€òòeffectóó€that€theÐ \¬ Ðstate€law€has€on€airline€operations.€€Accepting€the€AttorneyÐ X ÐGeneral's€argument€would€shift€the€analysis€under€the€FAAAA€awayÐ ´  Ðfrom€that€state€law's€effect€and€towards€the€state's€òòpurposeóó€forÐ ` ° Ðenacting€the€law.€€A€purpose„related€limitation€on€FAAAA€preemptionÐ  \  Ðwould€thus€inevitably€create€a€gap€between€the€scope€of€FAAAA€andÐ ¸  ÐAirline€Deregulation€Act€preemption€„„€a€gap€which€the€FAAAAÐ d´  Ðdrafters€sought€to€avoid.Ð `  Ðà ` àIn€the€end,€the€Attorney€General's€argument€foundersÐ ¼  Ðbecause€it€cannot€be€reconciled€with€the€Ô_ÔFAAAAÔ_Ô's€text.€€The€Act'sÐ h¸ Ðdrafters€chose€to€express€the€preemptive€scope€of€the€FAAAA€in€wordsÐ d Ðthat€they€understood€to€be€exceedingly€broad.€€In€the€preemptionÐ À Ðcontext,€we€are€to€give€effect€to€the€ordinary€meaning€of€aÐ l¼ Ðcongressional€enactment€"unless€there€is€good€reason€to€believe€thatÐ h ÐCongress€intended€the€language€to€have€some€more€restrictiveÐ Ä Ðmeaning."€€òòCipolloneóó,€505€U.S.€at€521.€€We€do€not€find€aÐ pÀ  Ðsufficiently€compelling€basis€in€either€the€structure€or€history€ofÐ !l" Ðthe€FAAAA€to€interpret€the€Act€contrary€to€its€"deliberatelyÐ È"$ Ðexpansive€text."€€òòMoralesóó,€504€U.S.€at€384.€€We€therefore€concludeÐ t$Ä& Ðthat€the€FAAAA€preempts€state€police„power€enactments€to€the€extentÐ  &p!( Ðthat€they€are€"related€to"€a€carrier's€prices,€routes,€or€services.׃1×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð Ì'#* Ðà ` àà ¨ àò ò2.€FAAAA€Preemption€of€the€Tobacco€Delivery€Lawòòó óóóÐ ° Ðà ` àWe€turn€now€to€whether€the€challenged€provisions€of€theÐ xÈ ÐTobacco€Delivery€Law€are€preempted€because€they€are€"related€to"Ð $t Ðcarrier€services.€€The€parties€do€not€contest€that€carriers€provideÐ Ð  Ðthe€service€of€delivering€"packages€on€an€express€or€time„guaranteedÐ | Ì Ðbasis."€€òòSeeóóòòN.H.€Motor€Transp.€Ass'nóó,€377€F.€Supp.€2d€at€209Ð ( x  Ð(quoting€òòUPS€Ióó,€318€F.3d€at€336).€€€But€they€disagree€over€whetherÐ Ô$  Ðthe€challenged€provisions€are€"related€to"€this€service.Ð €Ð  Ðà ` àWe€have€previously€interpreted€the€phrase€"related€to"€asÐ ,|  Ðused€in€the€FAAAA:à  àÐ Ø( ÐÒ` ÒÓÓà ` àThe€phrase€"related€to"€has€a€broad€meaning€in€Ð „Ô Ðà ` àordinary€usage:€to€stand€in€some€relation;€to€Ð Zª Ðà ` àhave€bearing€or€concern;€to€pertain;€refer;€to€Ð 0€ Ðà ` àbring€in€association€or€connection€with.€€When€Ð V Ðà ` àused€in€a€preemption€provision,€such€as€Ð Ü, Ðà ` à[in€the€FAAAA],€it€has€a€similarly€broad€reach.€Ð ² Ðà ` àState€laws€and€regulations€having€a€connection€Ð ˆØ Ðà ` àwith€or€reference€to€a€.€.€.€carrier's€.€.€.€Ð ^® Ðà ` àservices€are€preempted€under€the€[FAAAA].€€A€Ð 4„ Ðà ` àsufficient€nexus€exists€if€the€law€expressly€Ð  Z Ðâ âà ` àreferences€the€€.€.€.€carriers'€.€.€.€services€Ð à0 Ðà ` àor€has€a€forbidden€significant€effect€on€the€Ð ° Ðà ` àsame.Ð †Ö Ðâ âÓt¾ÓÌÒ` ÒòòUPS€Ióó,€318€F.3d€at€335.€€We€therefore€consider€whether€the€districtÐ X Ðcourt€correctly€concluded€that€the€challenged€provisions€of€theÐ ´  ÐTobacco€Delivery€Law€either€expressly€reference€carrier€services€orÐ ` ° Ðhave€a€forbidden€significant€effect€on€UPS'€services.Ð  \  Ðà ` àWe€begin€with€ðð€1555„C(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô).€€As€set€forth€above,€thisÐ ¸  Ðstatute€requires€tobacco€retailers€seeking€to€ship€tobacco€productsÐ d´  Ðdirectly€to€Maine€consumers€to€use€only€carriers€that€deliver€theÐ `  Ðpackage€directly€to€the€addressee/purchaser,€require€a€signatureÐ ¼  Ðfrom€the€addressee/purchaser,€and€conduct€age€verification€if€theÐ h¸ Ðaddressee/purchaser€is€under€27€years€of€age.€€Another€sectionÐ d Ðpenalizes€retailers€that€use€carriers€that€do€not€provide€theseÐ À Ðservices.€€22€Ô_ÔM.R.S.A.Ô_Ô€ðððð€1555„C(3)(E)&(F).Ð l¼ Ðà ` àSection€1555„C(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô)€expressly€references€a€carrier'sÐ h Ðservice€of€providing€the€timely€delivery€of€packages.€€The€statuteÐ Ä Ðprescribes€the€method€by€which€a€carrier€operating€in€Maine€mustÐ pÀ  Ðdeliver€packages€containing€tobacco€products€in€a€way€that€wouldÐ !l" Ðaffect€the€ability€of€the€carrier€to€meet€package„deliveryÐ È"$ Ðdeadlines.€Delays€in€searching€for€the€purchaser,€making€multipleÐ t$Ä& Ðdelivery€attempts€if€the€purchaser€cannot€be€located,€obtaining€theÐ  &p!( Ðpurchaser's€signature,€and€verifying€the€purchaser's€age€all€couldÐ Ì'#* Ðaffect€timely€deliveries.€€òòSeeóó€òòUPS€Ióó,€318€F.3d€at€336€(finding€thatÐ x)È$, Ðthe€FAAAA€preempted€a€state€law€that€"Ô_Ôaffect[edÔ_Ô]€the€timeliness€andÐ $+t&. ÐÑ*@¸Ñâ *âÑ  Ñâ *âÑ  Ñeffectiveness"€€of€€a€carrier's€€service).Ð ° Ðà ` àThe€Attorney€General€responds€that€there€is€no€FAAAAÐ \¬ Ðpreemption€because€ðð€1555„C(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô)€regulates€òòretailersóó€of€tobaccoÐ X Ðproducts€and€not€carriers.€€He€also€argues€that€we€should€decline€toÐ ´  Ðfind€preemption€because€any€carrier€can€avoid€the€requirements€of€ððÐ ` ° Ð1555„C(3)Ô_Ô(CÔ_Ô)€by€declining€to€provide€tobacco„product€deliveries€toÐ  \  ÐMaine€consumers.Ð ¸  Ðà ` àThe€Attorney€General's€first€argument€amounts€to€a€claimÐ d´  Ðthat€there€can€be€no€FAAAA€preemption€unless€the€state€law€imposesÐ `  Ða€direct€regulation€on€carriers.€€This€argument€cannot€be€squaredÐ ¼  Ðwith€the€FAAAA's€text€because€it€reads€the€broad€phrase€"related€to"Ð h¸ Ðout€of€the€statute€and€replaces€it€with€the€narrower€termÐ d Ð"regulates."€€òòSeeóó€òòMoralesóó,€504€U.S.€at€385€(rejecting€an€argumentÐ À Ðthat€would€have€read€"relating€to"€out€of€the€Airline€DeregulationÐ l¼ ÐAct€and€replaced€it€with€"regulate");€òòUPS€Ióó,€318€F.3d€at€335Ð h Ð(rejecting€an€argument€for€narrowing€scope€of€the€FAAAA€that€"wouldÐ Ä Ðread€'the€related€to€language'€out€of€the€statute").Ð pÀ  Ðà ` àMoreover,€limiting€preemption€to€direct€regulation€ofÐ !l" Ðcarriers€is€inconsistent€with€the€Ô_ÔFAAAAÔ_Ô's€purpose€to€bar€states€fromÐ È"$ Ðpolicing€carrier€operations.€€òòSeeóó€òòAm.€Airlinesóó,€513€U.S.€at€228.€€AÐ t$Ä& Ðstate€may€use€its€coercive€power€to€cause€carriers€to€conform€toÐ  &p!( Ðstate„imposed€rules€in€at€least€two€ways:€it€may€directly€regulateÐ Ì'#* Ðcarriers€or€it€may€limit€retailers€to€hiring€only€those€carriers€Ð x)È$, Ðthat€comply€with€the€state„imposed€mandates.€€Either€way€the€stateÐ $+t&. Ðis€employing€its€coercive€power€to€police€the€method€by€whichÐ ° Ðcarriers€provide€services€in€the€state.€€òòóóIn€short,€the€AttorneyÐ \¬ ÐGeneral's€argument€would€lead€to€the€untenable€result€of€permittingÐ X Ðstates€to€regulate€carrier€services€indirectly€by€regulatingÐ ´  Ðshippers.€€òòCf.óó€òòAbington€Sch.€Dist.óó€v.€òòSchempóó,€374€U.S.€203,€230Ð ` ° Ð(1963)€(declining€to€adopt€an€interpretation€that€would€permitÐ  \  Ðstates€to€do€indirectly€what€they€cannot€do€directly).Ð ¸  Ðà ` àThe€Attorney€General's€alternative€argument€„„€that€thereÐ d´  Ðis€no€preemption€because€a€carrier€can€forgo€certain€tobacco„productÐ `  Ðdeliveries€in€Maine€„„€also€fails.€€Declining€to€find€preemption€Ð ¼  Ðsimply€because€a€carrier€can€limit€its€in„state€business€to€avoid€aÐ h¸ Ðparticular€requirement€would€undermine€the€FAAAA's€goal€of€creatingÐ d Ðan€environment€in€which€"[s]ervice€options€will€be€dictated€by€theÐ À Ðmarketplace,"€and€not€by€state€regulatory€regimes.€€H.R.€Conf.€Rep.Ð l¼ Ð103„677€at€88,€òòreprinted€inóó€1994€U.S.C.C.A.N.€at€1760.€€The€districtÐ h Ðcourt€correctly€concluded€that€the€FAAAA€preempts€ðð€1555„C(3)(C).Ð Ä Ðà ` àWe€turn€finally€to€whether€the€FAAAA€preempts€ðð€1555„D.€Ð pÀ  ÐIn€considering€this€question,€we€are€mindful€that€courts€should€"notÐ !l" Ðnullify€more€of€a€legislature's€work€than€is€necessary,€for€.€.€.€Ð È"$ Ða€€ruling€of€unconstitutionality€frustrates€the€intent€of€theÐ t$Ä& Ðelected€representative€of€the€people."€€òòAyotteóó€v.€òòPlanned€ParenthoodÐ  &p!( Ðof€N.€New€Englandóó,€126€S.€Ct.€961,€967€(2006)€(internal€citationÐ Ì'#* Ðomitted).€€The€first€part€of€ðð1555„D€makes€it€unlawful€for€anyÐ x)È$, Ðperson€knowingly€to€deliver€to€Maine€consumers€certain€contrabandÐ $+t&. Ðtobacco€products€„„€i.e.,€those€tobacco€products€purchased€byÐ ° Ðconsumers€from€unlicensed€retailers.€€The€second€part€of€ðð€1555„DÐ \¬ Ðcharges€a€carrier€with€knowledge€that€a€package€contains€tobaccoÐ X Ðproducts€if€the€package€is€so€marked€or€if€the€shipper€appears€onÐ ´  Ðthe€Attorney€General's€list€of€unlicensed€tobacco€retailers.Ð ` ° Ðà ` àUnder€Maine€law,€tobacco€products€purchased€by€a€consumerÐ  \  Ðfrom€an€unlicensed€retailer€are€contraband.€€òòSeeóó€22€Ô_ÔM.R.S.A.Ô_Ô€ðð€1555„Ð ¸  ÐC(7).€€The€first€part€of€ðð€1555„D€is€a€corollary€to€ðð€1555„C(7)€inÐ d´  Ðthat€it€makes€the€knowing€delivery€of€contraband€tobacco€productsÐ `  Ðillegal.€€Thus,€the€question€we€face€is€whether€a€generallyÐ ¼  Ðapplicable€law€barring€any€person€from€knowingly€deliveringÐ h¸ Ðcontraband€tobacco€is€preempted€by€the€FAAAA€insofar€as€the€lawÐ d Ðpertains€to€carriers.Ð À Ðà ` àWhile€the€Ô_ÔFAAAAÔ_Ô's€preemptive€effect€is€broad,€òòseeóó€òòUPS€Ióó,Ð l¼ Ð318€F.3d€at€335,€it€is€not€unlimited,€òòseeóó€òòMendoncaóó,€152€F.3d€atÐ h Ð1188.€€State€laws€that€only€have€a€"tenuous,€remote,€or€peripheral"€Ð Ä Ðrelation€to€services€are€beyond€the€Ô_ÔFAAAAÔ_Ô's€reach.€€òòMoralesóó,€504Ð pÀ  ÐU.S.€at€390;€òòMendoncaóó,€152€F.3d€at€1188.€€In€describing€thisÐ !l" Ðlimitation€on€preemption€in€the€Airline€Deregulation€Act€context,Ð È"$ Ðthe€Supreme€Court€explained€that€its€broad€interpretation€of€theÐ t$Ä& Ðstatute's€preemption€provision€did€not€place€it€"on€a€road€thatÐ  &p!( Ðleads€to€pre„emption€of€gambling€and€prostitution€as€applied€toÐ Ì'#* Ðairlines."€€òòMoralesóó,€504€U.S.€at€390.€€We€understand€the€òòMoralesóóÐ x)È$, ÐCourt€to€have€meant€that€states€may€continue€to€enjoy€the€power€toÐ $+t&. Ðban€primary€conduct,€and€that€the€ADA€and€FAAAA€do€not€preempt€lawsÐ ° Ðapplying€these€prohibitions€to€airlines€and€carriers.€Ð \¬ Ðà ` àAccordingly,€òòMoralesóó€suggests€that€ðð€1555„D's€ban€on€theÐ X Ðknowing€delivery€of€contraband€tobacco€products€is€not€preempted€byÐ ´  Ðthe€FAAAA€„„€even€only€insofar€as€it€pertains€to€carrier€services.€Ð ` ° ÐSection€1555„D€requires€that€carriers€do€not€act€as€òòknowingóóÐ  \  Ðaccomplices€in€the€illegal€sale€of€tobacco€products.€€It€does€not,Ð ¸  Ðhowever,€require€that€carriers€modify€their€delivery€methods€otherÐ d´  Ðthan€by€declining€to€transport€a€product€that€Maine€has€legitimatelyÐ `  Ðbanned.€€We€think€that€this€effect€on€services€is€"too€tenuous"€toÐ ¼  Ðwarrant€preemption.€€òòMendoncaóó,€152€F.3d€at€1189€(stating€that€aÐ h¸ Ðstate€law€is€too€tenuous€to€be€preempted€by€the€FAAAA€where€the€lawÐ d Ðdoes€not€frustrate€the€Ô_ÔFAAAAÔ_Ô's€Ô_ÔderegulatoryÔ_Ô€purposes).Ð À Ðà ` àIf€the€rule€were€otherwise,€states€would€be€unable€to€barÐ l¼ Ða€primary€method€by€which€contraband€crosses€state€lines.€€We€do€notÐ h Ðbelieve€that€this€was€Congress'€intent€in€enacting€the€FAAAA.€€OtherÐ Ä Ðcourts€applying€the€FAAAA€to€prohibitions€on€the€delivery€ofÐ pÀ  Ðcontraband€tobacco€have€reached€similar€conclusions.€€òòSeeóó€òòRobertsonóóÐ !l" Ðv.€òòLiquor€Control€Bd.óó,€10€P.3d€1079,€1084„85€(Wash.€App.€Ct.€2000)Ð È"$ Ð(concluding€that€the€FAAAA€did€not€preempt€a€state€law€banning€theÐ t$Ä& Ðtransport€of€contraband€cigarettes€because€otherwise€"a€motorÐ  &p!( Ðcarrier€would€be€exempt€from€forfeiture€for€transporting€aÐ Ì'#* Ðmethamphetamine€lab€or€poached€game");€òòseeóó€òòalsoóó€òòN.Y.€State€MotorÐ x)È$, ÐTruck€Ass'nóó€v.€òòPatakióó,€No.€03„CV„2386€(GBD),€2004€WL€2937803,€at€*6Ð $+t&. ÐÑOYÑâ âѰ°Ñâ âÑ  Ñ(W.D.N.Y.€Aug.€19,€2003)€(concluding€that€the€FAAAA€did€not€preemptÐ ° Ða€state€law€making€it€unlawful€for€carriers€to€deliver€cigarettesÐ \¬ Ðdirectly€to€New€York€consumers€because€€"the€mere€fact€that€aÐ X Ðstatute€concerns€the€transportation€of€a€particular€cargo€by€€.€.€.Ð ´  Ðcarriers€.€.€.€does€not€render€it€€.€.€.€unconstitutional€onÐ ` ° Ðpreemption€grounds");€òòWardóó€v.€òòNew€Yorkóó,€291€F.€Supp.€2d€188,€210„211Ð  \  Ð(S.D.N.Y.€2004)€(similar).Ô_Ô׃(×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_ÔÐ ¸  Ðà ` àBut,€while€Maine€may€ban€a€carrier€from€knowinglyÐ d´  Ðtransporting€contraband€tobacco€products,€it€may€not€dictate€theÐ `  Ðprocedures€that€a€carrier€should€employ€to€locate€these€products€inÐ ¼  Ðits€delivery€chain.€€òòSeeóó€òòUPS€Ióó,€318€F.3d€at€336€(concluding€that€theÐ h¸ ÐFAAAA€preempted€a€Puerto€Rico€revenue„collection€scheme€thatÐ d Ðmandated€procedures€that€carriers€had€to€follow€to€deliver€certainÐ À Ðpackages).€€The€second€part€of€ðð€1555„D€violates€this€principle.Ð l¼ Ðà ` àAs€noted,€ðð€1555„D€imposes€upon€a€carrier€constructiveÐ h Ðknowledge€that€it€has€delivered€a€tobacco€product€if€the€packageÐ ° Ðcontaining€the€product€is€marked€as€containing€tobacco€or€if€theÐ \¬ Ðseller's€name€appears€on€the€Attorney€General's€list.€€As€UPS'Ð X Ðexperience€demonstrates,€a€carrier€seeking€to€comply€with€ðð€1555„DÐ ´  Ðmust€specially€inspect€every€package€destined€for€delivery€in€Maine.€Ð ` ° ÐOnce€the€carrier€has€finished€this€inspection,€it€must€segregate€theÐ  \  Ðpackages€that€contain€tobacco€and€research€whether€the€addressee€isÐ ¸  Ða€Maine„licensed€retailer€or€distributor€who€can€receive€theÐ d´  Ðpackage.€€While€the€second€part€of€ðð€1555„D€does€not€expresslyÐ `  Ðreference€carrier€services,€it€"impermissibly€affect[s]€.€.€.Ð ¼  Ðservices€.€.€.€because€it€requir[es]€UPS€to€identify€the€contents€ofÐ h¸ Ðthe€packages€(a€deviation€from€standard€procedures€used€inÐ d Ðdeliveries€elsewhere€in€the€United€States).€.€.€."€€òòUPS€IIóó,€385€F.2dÐ À Ðat€14€(parenthesis€in€original).€€UPS€can€only€provide€timelyÐ l¼ Ðpackage€delivery€if€it€follows€uniform€procedures€that€allow€for€"anÐ h Ðorderly€flow€of€packages."€€òòUPS€Ióó,€318€F.3d€at€336.€€Because€theÐ Ä Ðsecond€part€of€ðð€1555„D€has€the€effect€of€forcing€UPS€to€change€itsÐ pÀ  Ðuniform€package„processing€procedures,€the€district€court€correctlyÐ !l" Ðfound€it€to€be€preempted.׃)×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð È"$ Ðà ` àIn€reaching€this€conclusion,€we€recognize€that€there€is€aÐ ° Ðpotential€tension€between€saying€that,€on€the€one€hand,€Maine€isÐ \¬ Ðfree€to€punish€the€knowing€delivery€of€material€that€it€hasÐ X Ðclassified€as€contraband,€while,€on€the€other€hand,€ruling€that€itÐ ´  Ðmay€not€dictate€or€interfere€with€a€carrier's€delivery€procedures.€Ð ` ° ÐWhat€we€are€saying€here,€however,€is€that€Maine€cannot€use€theÐ  \  Ðmechanisms€outlined€in€the€statute€to€òòimputeóó€knowledge€based€on€aÐ ¸  Ðfailure€to€read€labels€or€consult€lists€„„€€an€imputation€whichÐ d´  Ðwould€amount€to€prescribing€how€carriers€must€operate.Ð `  Ðà ` àIf,€however,€Maine€could€prove€that€a€carrier€employee€hadÐ ¼  Ðactual€knowledge€that€a€package€being€delivered€was€contrabandÐ h¸ Ðtobacco,€then€it€might€have€a€Ô_ÔcolorableÔ_Ô€enforcement€case€„„€althoughÐ d Ðsuch€circumstances,€as€a€practical€matter,€may€be€difficult€toÐ À Ðprove.€€True,€the€"related€to"€language€could€stretch€to€such€a€caseÐ l¼ Ðbut€it€could€also€stretch€to€the€knowing€delivery€of€hard€drugs€„„Ð h Ðand€Congress€cannot€have€intended€such€a€result.€€Ð Ä ÐÓ  Óò òIII.Ð pÀ  ÐÓ  Óà ` àó ó"[T]obacco€use,€particularly€among€children€andÐ 8!ˆ" Ðadolescents,€poses€perhaps€the€single€most€significant€public€healthÐ ä"4$ Ðproblem€in€the€United€States."€€òòFDAóó€v.€òòBrown€&€Williamson€TobaccoÐ $à& ÐCorp.óó,€529€U.S.€120,€161€(2000).€€There€is€no€question€that€MaineÐ <&Œ!( Ðhas€sought€to€achieve€a€worthy€objective€by€passing€the€TobaccoÐ è'8#* ÐDelivery€Law€to€combat€this€pernicious€problem.€€òòSeeóó€òòN.H.€MotorÐ ”)ä$, ÐTransp.€Ass'nóó,€377€F.€Supp.€2d€at€219.€€But€the€FAAAA€focuses€on€theÐ @+&. Ðeffect€that€a€state's€law€has€on€carriers,€and€not€on€the€state'sÐ ° Ðobjective€in€passing€the€law.€€To€the€extent€that€Maine's€TobaccoÐ \¬ ÐDelivery€Law€requires€(or€has€the€effect€of€requiring)€carriers€toÐ X Ðimplement€state„mandated€procedures€in€the€processing€and€deliveryÐ ´  Ðof€packages,€it€is€preempted€by€the€FAAAA.€€But€to€the€extent€thatÐ ` ° Ðthe€Tobacco€Delivery€Law€merely€bars€all€persons€(includingÐ  \  Ðcarriers)€from€knowingly€transporting€contraband€tobacco€into€Maine,Ð ¸  Ðthe€FAAAA€is€not€implicated.Ð d´  Ðà ` àWe€ò òòòaffirmóó€ó óthe€judgment€as€it€pertains€to€22€M.R.S.A.€ððÐ `  Ð1555„C(3)(C)€and€the€second€part€of€22€M.R.S.A.€ðð€1555„D€but€ò òòòreverseóóÐ Ø( Ðó óthe€judgment€as€it€pertains€to€the€first€part€of€ðð€1555„D.€€WeÐ  ð Ðò òòòremandóó€ó óthe€case€to€the€district€court€with€instructions€to€amend€theÐ Lœ Ðjudgment€consistent€with€this€opinion.€€No€costs€are€awarded.Ð d Ðà ` àò òòòSo€orderedóó.ó ó€€